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The teacher is also affected9 _{by high levels of background noise and long re-}

verberation times. It has been noted that teachers have to raise their voices if they work in an environment that has high background noise levels (Rantala et al., 2012, 1).

Vocal stress, for example, is one symptom that affects many teachers. Dur- ing teaching, extensive use of the teacher’s voice is required, especially when having to compete with other teachers (in the case of inadequate sound insu- lation between adjacent classrooms, for example), placing teachers at high risk for developing occupational voice disorders (Dreossi and Momensohn-Santos, 2005, 254). Teachers are also burdened with additional activities such as tu- toring, lunchroom monitoring, teaching extracurricular activities, and parent- teacher conferences, leaving few opportunities to rest the voice.

Laurinolli (2012, 1) and Wilson et al. (2002, 6) found that modern teaching methods can be one reason for teachers’ voice disorders. Pupils are no longer required to sit quietly and listen to their teacher all day, rather, they are encouraged to be actively involved in learning activities, with more team work assignments being required (Wilson et al., 2002, 6). Wilson et al. (2002, 6) found that there is great value in group activities as it encourages ‘incidental learning’ where learners learn from one another, but good hearing conditions are essential for these types of activities as communication remains a crucial element. On the flip side, it is evident that changes in teaching methods have contributed to learning barriers, causing stress for both teachers and learners. A study done by Oticon in New Zealand (T & R Interior Systems, 2014, 6) found that group activities add strain to a teacher’s voice as half of the teachers in the study indicated that they had to considerably raise their voices during these type of class activities (possibly leading to nodules on vocal chords). This is the type of teaching method that is currently encouraged by the South African school curriculum, the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statements (caps). The focus of this type of curriculum is on continuous assessment involving frequent group tasks encouraging regular communication between learners.

If a teacher is constantly raising his or her voice while teaching, another effect may present itself:

Educational psychologists have known for some time that as a teacher raises his/her voice level, the tension and anxiety among children in the class is heightened. The prime example is when a teacher needs to raise their voice in a forceful manner to get the attention of a child

9_{Knecht et al. (2002, 70), Nelson et al. (2002, 2), Schneider et al. (2005, 76-7), Dreossi} and Momensohn-Santos (2005, 254), Association of Australian Acoustical Consultants (2010, 4), Laurinolli (2012, 1), Rantala et al. (2012, 1), Zannin et al. (2012, 216), Sound Reduction Systems (2013, 5), Chan et al. (2015, 10), and Mealings et al. (2016, 2) have documented vocal disorders and its impact on teachers.

misbehaving in the back of a classroom. All the children feel the stress of such a verbal encounter. It is also well known that a loud, forceful command for some children can have the opposite response to the desired behaviour. In general, children are known to respond best to a natural, conversational voice level (Bebb, 2009, 2).

According to Schneider et al. (2005, 76-7) teachers often have the added stress of having to compete with environmental noise to maintain learner con- centration. Nelson et al. (2002, 2) and the Association of Australian Acoustical Consultants (2010, 4) stress that teachers should be able to teach using a nat- ural (i.e., not straining) teaching voice. This will minimise long term strain, preventing possible damage that could threaten their ability to continue with their profession.

The Concerned About Classroom Coalition (1) explains that in Canada, as well as globally, absent teachers are costly for the education system. The use of substitute teachers interrupts the learning process for learners, who usually need time to adjust to new circumstances. Zannin et al. (2012, 216) distributed a questionnaire at a school to see if teachers are affected by voice disorders. The data showed that 21 % of the interviewed teachers reported the need to take a leave of absence from teaching due to noise-related health problems such as vocal fatigue. The main hindrances were constantly raised voices, overall fatigue, and vocal fatigue. An earlier survey by Smith et al. (1998) (in Nelson et al. (2002, 8)) yielded similar results, showing that in American schools, 20 % of teachers indicated that they had had to miss work due to voice related problems.

Apart from vocal strain, Schneider et al. (2005, 51), Kudesia and Tiwari (1994, 11), and Fletcher and Munson (1933, 82) propose that noise can also affect teachers in other ways: fatigue, hearing loss, tinnitus, social isolation, sleeplessness, alertness deficiency, and poor attention span. Research con- ducted by Schneider et al. (2005, 72) and Kristiansen et al. (2012, 1) supports the notion that high noise levels have an effect on the health of teachers, as it showed that high noise levels increase post-work irritability. Teachers find it even more difficult to unwind and relax, adding to their overall stress levels. According to Sound Reduction Systems (2013, 5), high background noise levels that cause learners to lose focus, also generate more work on the teachers’ side. These added stress levels, along with added workloads, prompt teachers in a direction away from the teaching profession, directly affecting the wellbeing and academic outcomes of learners. In a country such as South Africa, which has a shortage of well-educated teachers, the outlook is particularly dire. A quotation from a Task Force of the who (1993), (in Kihlman et al. (2014, 4))

identified the following specific health effects: interference with commu- nication, noise-induced hearing loss, annoyance responses, and effects on sleep, cardiovascular and psychophysiological systems, performance, productivity and social behaviour.

Disturbingly, the City of Tshwane (2004, 6) and Schneider et al.’s (2005, 9) research found that there is also a correlation between high noise exposure and increased admissions to mental hospitals. General natural reactions to loud noise exposure include dilating pupils, a racing heart, muscle tension, and adrenaline secretion (Finnish Centre for Occupational Safety, 2006, 1). Repeated exposure to such conditions can lead to headaches, nausea, fatigue, and irritability, thereby reducing the efficiency of the worker and increasing the likelihood of accidents (Hassan, 2009, 64).

Another, less serious side effect of frequent loud noise exposure is the tendency for teachers to speak louder outside of work compared to teachers with less noisy classroom environments (Mealings et al., 2016, 2). Teachers constantly have to make vocal adjustments in order to project their voice and maintain classroom control (Dreossi and Momensohn-Santos, 2005, 254- 5; Knecht et al., 2002, 70), and this is even more common in schools with disciplinary challenges.