The literature indicates that there are a variety of different risk management strategies that could aid pro-social outcomes. Using a Culture of Enquiry approach (Lees et al 2003) to exploring risk assessment and risk management raises questions about what is being assessed and why, how relevant the assessments are for adults who offend in adolescence and how effectively these assessments are at directing and influencing risk management plans. The research indicates that understanding the reasons why we are assessing is crucial; what the behaviour that caused concern was and what the triggering event is that is creating the need for assessment. Is someone being assessed because there has been recent offending or is the assessment because of historic offending. Another important area in promoting positive outcomes is the importance of building the therapeutic relationship (Baldwin et al, 2007, Horvarth et al, 2011). However, it is important to recognise that professionals need to balance the ‘helper-role’ with the supervision component of the criminal justice role and that this is the key to developing positive therapeutic relationships within mandatory criminal justice settings (Andrews et al, 1996).
When considering effective risk management then the literature appears to focus on two specific areas; that of the individual and that of the organisation. In focusing on the individual, it is clear that working with adolescents who display harmful sexual behaviour
50 and adults who sexually offend within adolescence, there appears to be a lack of research on to how to understand this offending population. Often the developmental context within which they offended is lost within the adult assessment process. It is clear that the recidivism rates for adolescents are lower than the recidivism rates of adults; this suggests that the sexually abusive behaviour pattern is different and is not as entrenched. The re-offence profile also appears different with broader ranging criminality being a feature, therefore a different approach needs to be taken in order to appropriately risk manage adolescents as they transition to adulthood.
In considering the research in relation to what makes a difference to pro-social outcomes then the humanistic roots of Maslow (1943) and the psychoanalytic approach of Haigh (2013) seem a useful starting point, stressing the importance of basic needs, safety, love and relationships and positive thinking. The need for a strengths-based approach is also crucial when working with adolescents (Ward & Maruna, 2007), encouraging positive behaviours and pro-social development and acknowledging how ready the individual is for change (Burrows & Need, 2008).The importance of strengths based practice is also highlighted by Buckingham & Clifton (2001) and Clifton & Harter (2003). In aiding reintegration then it is important to encourage engagement (Duggins, 2011) and partnership working with the young person, where they are given responsibility and ownership over their own behaviour and risks (Smale et al, 1993, Rapoport 1960, Kennard, 1998).
Silovsky et al (2018) highlight how targeted intervention with young people has a significant impact on the reduction of sexual offending by young people; this is echoed by Worling & Curwen (2004), Worling et al (2010) and ter Beek et al (2018). However Kettrey & Lipsey (20180 report that there is little credible research into specialist treatment programmes for young people who display harmful sexual behaviour and that the effectiveness for reducing offending is not clear. When considering behaviour, it is important there is a focus on sexual concerns, such as sexual deviance, victim profile and the use of threat and harm (Worling & Longstrom 2003, Robinson et al, 1997, Seto et al, 2000). In addition to the sexual concerns non-sexual anti-social behaviours such as aggression also need to be considered (Righthand et al, 2005). The importance of including developmental factors in any risk assessment of adolescents has been highlighted by research, suggesting the importance of factors such as trauma and abuse experience, domestic violence and mental illness (Hackett 2013b, Cantor et
51 al, 2005, Johnson & Knight 2000, Knight & Simms-Knight 2003, Koba-yashi et al 1995, Marshall & Barbaree 1990).
Relational aspects also need to be considered, highlighting the importance of family, peers and intimate relationships (Marshall & Barbaree, 1990; Righthand & Welsh, 2001; Ryan, 1999; Smallbone, 2006; Marshall et al, 1993; Altschuler & Brash, 2004). Wider environmental factors are also important and these need to incorporate the findings from the research on re-integration (Manocha & Mezey 1998, Hickey et al 2006, Timms & Goreczny 2002, Cicchetti, Toth & Maughan 2000).
The final areas to be highlighted as significant in developing pro-social outcomes are that of attitude and aspiration, that the individual has a positive attitude to intervention and that they have positive aspirations to strive towards (de Vogel et al 20112). These factors key areas are highlighted in Fig 5.
Figure 5- Key Factors for Pro-Social Outcomes
An individual’s behaviour will also be an important part of any assessment of risk and risk management plan but including this with other factors may give a more detailed picture. It is clear that understanding someone’s developmental history is also important in being able to focus intervention appropriately in terms of relationships and environmental factors. The final areas focus on are the individual’s engagement with services and their attitudes to both their offending and their future; these appear to be crucial in understanding someone’s ability to change. In order to strengthen the risk assessment and risk management process it would be useful to have a tool that could bridge the developmental transition and work across different professional disciplines.
It is also important to focus on the role organisations have in promoting positive risk management and pro-social outcomes. It is clear that working with offenders is a complex field that presents a significant amount of issues for professionals, including coming from different perspectives and having limited resources, professionals also have to navigate complex issues with professional power and anxiety, anxiety that is often unexplored or
Behavioural Factors Developmental Factors Environmental Factors Relational Factors Attitudial Factors Aspirational Factors
52 unexpressed by those professionals involved in this work. The factors that appear to be important are firstly the political climate as this is the foundation which dictates the role of the organisation, the resources available to that organisation and the review process within that organisation and ultimately the power held by the organisation (Fig 6).
Figure 6- Political Climate
In order to strengthen the risk assessment and risk management process it would be useful to have clear guidance and support for professionals working in this field, guidance on what assessments should be undertaken, the restrictions and risk management strategies to implement and the process of review. It is also important that organisations have structures in place to support the staff to complete their role effectively.