Sección transversal en circuitos de competición

In this chapter, I discuss several issues concerning women in prison. I begin by looking at the history of women in prison, more specifically, the facilities in which they have been housed, the care they have received, and the opportunities afforded to them. Next, I describe the characteristics of women in prison (i.e., backgrounds, demographic characteristics, and offense types) and compare them to their male counterparts.

Additionally, I review the gendered pathways literature, which notes that women offenders enter the criminal justice system through different avenues than men and that these differences warrant more research and specific types of programs for women. Finally, I discuss the needs of women offenders and recommendations for gender- responsive programming.

History of Women in Prison

Historically, women have been overlooked and neglected by the correctional system and those studying the corrections area, this despite the fact that gender is one of the most important predictors of criminality (Belknap, 2007). One of the main reasons for this neglect and lack of attention is that women comprise a very small minority of the correctional population (Belknap, 2007; Butler, 1997; Koons, Burrow, Morash, & Bynum, 1997; Owen, 2001; Zatz, 2000). In fact, they are often referred to as an "invisible" population (Belknap, 2007), and as a result, have often been addressed or treated in the same manner by the correctional system as their male counterparts. For

instance, programs that have been developed for incarcerated males (i.e., the majority population) have been implemented in women's prisons without much thought as to whether the programs were appropriate for, or useful to incarcerated women (Rafter, 1989, 1990). At other times in history, the correctional system has viewed women as being different from men and in need of their own programs and policies. In the sections below, I trace the history of women's involvement in the correctional system and detail the fluctuating perspectives of treating women the same as, or different from men.

Early Correctional Treatment

The first women incarcerated by the American correctional system in the late 18th century and the early 19th century were housed with men (Butler, 1997; Mays & Winfree, 2009; Rafter, 1990, Van Wormer, 2010). Women often suffered from neglect and abuse while in these facilities, typically because the larger population of males needed more attention and caused more problems for security (Butler, 1997; Mays & Winfree, 2009; Rafter, 1990). While imprisoned, women received similar brutal and tortuous

punishments as men (Belknap, 2007; Butler, 1997) and in addition to conventional or sanctioned punishments they were tortured and raped by male officers and prisoners (Belknap, 2007; Butler, 1997). The injustices that women experienced in these early co- ed prisons were often dismissed because they were not regarded as “real women”

deserving of social protection (Butler, 1997). In fact, criminal women were often viewed more negatively than their male counterparts, not only because they had committed a crime but also because they were women who had committed a crime. At the time, women were viewed as morally pure and represented all that was good and decent in civilized society. Criminal women not only violated laws and morality but they defied

what it meant to be a “good” woman (Butler, 1997; Schram, 2003). This view of women has been extremely influential in their treatment by the correctional system and it

continues to have an impact on them.

It is important to note that during this time period not all women were

incarcerated in the same way. Women were treated differently depending on what part of the country they were imprisoned. Facilities in some regions were more benign than others and treated women less harshly than facilities in other regions (Butler, 1997; Rafter, 1990). As was the case for men, the South tended to maintain different

correctional goals from the North and often used women as domestic and field laborers (Rafter, 1990). In spite of these regional differences in the imprisonment of offenders, this period of time for corrections is typically regarded as a time of 'equal treatment' for male and female offenders (Rafter, 1990). Women and men often faced the same barbaric punishments, treatment, and amenities (e.g., exercise yards, recreational activities; Rafter, 1990). Since these punishments and treatments were originally designed to manage men, they were typically not effective or appropriate for women (Rafter, 1990).

Nicole Rafter (1990), a well-respected prison historian, refers to this early phase in American corrections and the history of women under correctional supervision as a time of “partial justice.” That is, women were not as likely as men to be imprisoned during this time, but when there were, they were treated just as poorly, if not more so than their male counterparts. They were punished, beaten, and raped by both male prisoners and the officers who were responsible for supervising them. Over time and because of several scandals (i.e., inmate pregnancy), females were moved into separate corrections facilities (Mays & Winfree, 2009; Rafter, 1990).

Although women were removed from these co-ed facilities, the new buildings that housed them remained on the same grounds as the original facilities (Rafter, 1990). This move did not necessarily benefit them. Women continued to suffer from neglect even after they were moved out of male housing areas. They lacked services and were prevented from being involved in vocational programs or work assignments, and when women were allowed to participate in work assignments they usually entailed domestic chores (Butler, 1997; Rafter, 1990). When amenities and services were provided to women, they were typically inferior to those that were given to men, and oftentimes, the wardens for the male prisons remained in charge of female prisoners rather than women having their own separate warden.