Segmentos, rayos y ´angulos

The critical discussion presented in Chapter three, of psychological investigations of body image that organize criteria according to logical positivist principles, which largely overlook the dilemma posed by the mind-body problem, represented a departure point for the study of the body image from an alternative point of view. This alternative point of view is characterized in the present study by (a) the importance placed upon the application of Schilder’s (1935/1978) theory, (b) the use of qualitative methods to explore and possibly build on that theory, and (c) a greater emphasis given to the experience of procedural movement in the formation of the body image.

4.1.1 The importance of theory to the research act

It was argued in Section 3.3.4 of Chapter three that the four Scandinavian studies presented there, demonstrated that theoretical frameworks incorporating a holistic account of the relation between the mind and body provide an alternative perspective from which to examine the body image. Schilder’s (1935/1978) theory was founded upon holistic principles about the relation between mind and body. He developed this perspective by way of a dynamic and constructive conceptualization of apperception that was borne of psychological activity across three

dimensions of body experience. The body image in Schilder’s account is ultimately a dynamic psycho-physiological entity. It can be understood as the product of an active and generative interpretation of human perception, encapsulated first in the work of Brentano (1874/1973), but advanced through Schilder’s neurological and psychoanalytic training.

Schilder’s (1935/1978; 1942) affiliation with and dedication to the advancement of psychoanalytic ideas can be demonstrated in comments made by him in at least two published works. In his monograph on the body image he stated that, “[a] psychology which does not utilize the enormous enlargement of the horizon which Freud and psychoanalysis has achieved, neglects an innumerable number of important experiences” (1935/1978, p. 9). Later he revisited this and underlined his dedication to the advancement of psychoanalytic ideas by noting in the preface of a publication released after his death, that he was “deeply influenced by Freud” (1942, p. ix). In both works he paid homage to Freud and presented his own ideas as an extension of them, although his interdisciplinary orientation meant that he was able to observe different kinds of phenomena to those characterized by psychoanalytic theory. Schilder’s interest in the postural model of the body, for example, suggested that he had a fascination with the experience of physical movement, body awareness and their organic basis. But his interest in the body image suggested also that his empirical attention was also drawn to the subjective awareness of one’s actual body, including its movement and the dynamic energies involved in the process of self- apperception in psychological life.

Hence, while Schilder’s (1935/1978) theory provides reasonable answers about the time relationships between variables in the process of self-apperception, it has limitations. It is thus important to stress the role that theory and theory building can have in the advancement of all psychological knowledge, but also to underline that the versatility of theory lies in its capacity to be modified and extended.

The findings of the four Scandinavian studies described in Chapter three also demonstrated that the application of a theoretically cohesive framework to the relationship between mind and body can serve to locate the research act outside the dualist assumptions of logical positivism. Such a

shift might magnify the speculative function of theory or its function as an empirical heuristic1 _and

thus provide a framework through which to analyze findings with respect to relationships between variables associated with change across time. For example, Ussher (2000) noted that the hypothetico-deductive model, valued by the logical positivist paradigm and associated with mental health research in psychology, is often faced with substantial limitations when interpreting temporal relationships in data. Antecedent variables, she noted, are often difficult to trace using the hypothetico-deductive model. Discourses describing physical and mental illness according to risk factors provide only a partial resolution to this difficulty. As an alternative it might be suggested instead that a priori theory, like Schilder’s (1935/1978) theory of dynamic construction, can provide reasonable answers about time relationships between variables even though, not unlike the hypothetico-deductive model, it too has the potential to delimit the kinds of questions that can be asked and the resolutions that can be offered. It is thus important to stress the role that theory and theory building can have in the advancement of all psychological knowledge, and that it represents an often overlooked but complementary approach to the logical positivist paradigm.

4.1.2 The role of qualitative methods

Given that theory building was the second aim of the present study, and that the hypothetico- deductive methods usually associated with psychological research largely serve the verification of existing theory, qualitative approaches were identified as being more appropriate. Qualitative methods are characterized by small participant samples and in-depth textual analyses of what is often open-ended inquiry.

1 _{Draaisma (2000) described the empirical heuristic as a metaphor used in scientific study that}

“produces new topics for research” (p. 18). He exemplified the efficacy of the empirical heuristic by describing how Harvey’s assertion that “the heart is a pump” (p. 18) opened up new topics for theoretical speculation and empirical investigation on human physiology during the seventeenth century, because of that metaphorical structure.

4.1.3 An emphasis upon procedural movement

Human action demonstrates the activity of synaesthetic perception and motor ability. However movement, a concept more suited to the subjective experience of human action, denotes the presence of reflective intentionality, a trademark of the body image. Through movement, the activity of the body image is able to confirm or disconfirm a sense of bodily unity with regard to space, time and causality. As noted in Chapter three, Grosz (1994) referred to the body image as an anchoring point. However this anchoring function has been largely overlooked in the psychological literature, as has been the role of movement in the construction of the body image. According to Schilder (1935/1978), human motility characterizes what is quintessential to the constructed body he referred to as the body image.

Movement is represented to conscious experience as a global event. However, this global experience cannot represent to conscious thought that which lies below the level of conscious attention. As mentioned previously, Schilder (1935/1978) noted that there are both conscious and unconscious characteristics associated with one’s self-attention to the body. Under such conditions the body image can be understood as that which organizes this layered experience.

The volitional movement we execute in going about our daily lives happens unconsciously. However, it may be assumed that individuals who have trained in procedural movement and/or who perform their movement in social settings may have a more conscious awareness of the way they organize that movement. It was deemed appropriate, therefore that one of the conditions defining the selection of participants in the present study be that individuals be involved in movement performances in some professional capacity. Such individuals, it was assumed, would have greater conscious awareness of the movement they execute and therefore have more to say about it. Procedural movement was thus identified as the medium through which participants would be asked to reflect upon the history of their feeling and thinking experience pertaining to the body.