Segregación de las mercancías de la Clase 1

Decision-making research in the Cognitive tradition has presented a variety of explanations regarding impulsive and self-controlled choice behaviour. Sanfey, Loewenstein, McClure and Cohen (2006) reviewed evidence to suggest the presence of a multiple system in delay discounting tasks, whereby impulsive and self-controlled choices activated different brain regions. Areas activated during impulsive choices (referred to as the Beta system) related to automatic reward evaluation but were not associated with future planning. Areas activated

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during self-controlled choices (referred to as the Delta system), involved more effective assessment of future rewards through the activity of components involved in cognitive processes. Such evidence implies increased cognitive processes are involved in self-controlled choice and impulsive responding occurs automatically in absence of future regard.

Economic theorists have directed much research towards decision-making regarding financial and consumer activities. Thaler (1999) conducted and reviewed research on cognitions involved within such decision-making. Included within this was research on self-control as it has been argued that saving and investing behaviours involve self-controlled decision-making. For example, rather than spending any available money buying an immediate reward, how do individuals make the controlled decision to save it and get a large reward of increased interest later? Thaler claimed that "Mental accounting matters", that is "the set of cognitive operations used by individuals and households to organise, evaluate, and keep track of financial activities" (p. 183). This review generally implied that choice is influenced by mental accounting and hence that increased 'thinking' was valuable in promoting self-controlled choice.

Thus it appears possible that an individual responding to a larger delayed reward may require more time to think than when responding to a smaller more immediate amount in a choice task. Shorter response times are therefore likely to be associated with more impulsive choices. This is supported by McCown, Johnson and Shure (1993), who found that high impulsivity was associated with shorter response times.

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Behavioural discounting research by Robles and Vargas (2007) also recorded participants’ response times to delayed and more immediate rewards. They maintained that response time corresponded to the effort of choosing between two different reward options. The closer individuals get to their point of indifference, the more they ponder and consider the options, and consequently they present larger response times during these choices. Similarly, Mitchell (1999) recorded participants' response times in addition to indifference points and scores from self-report measures. Response times were recorded from the initial presentation of a question to the point at which participants indicated that they were certain about their choice. This study found that smokers presented more impulsive responding and shorter response times than the non-smokers, subsequently providing evidence to suggest that impulsive responding might involve less time thinking about the choice options.

According to Mobini et al. (2007), two types of impulsivity exist: functional impulsivity (involving quick more beneficial choices) and dysfunctional impulsivity (rapid, non-reflective choices involving "maladaptive cognitive attributes”, p. 1526). This is similar to a cognitive theory by Beck (1976) in which forethought is considered limited in individuals with dysfunctional impulsiveness.

Research concerning the involvement of thoughts in decision-making of individuals who present highly impulsive behaviour (such as ADHD and substance abuse) may increase understanding of such often detrimental behaviour. Discounting research has shown that organisms frequently make impulsive choices, and that organisms have different indifference points depending on the parameters of the study. However, there is limited research

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concerning the involvement of thoughts in impulsive behaviour of specific populations such as adolescents with behavioural, emotional and social difficulties (BESD). Such research has the potential to provide insight into intervention methods to increase self-regulation of socially appropriate behaviour and independence in such individuals.

As reported in section 1.2 of the current thesis, individuals with BESD include those with diagnoses of ASD and/or ADHD, both of which feature impulsivity as a major characteristic. Considerable research has identified strong evidence that individuals with ASD have difficulties in accounting for the mental states of others, a term commonly referred to as theory of mind (e.g., Perner, Frith, Leslie & Leekam, 1989; Baron-Cohen, Leslie & Frith, 1985). Moreover, a small volume of research has found that in addition to a deficient theory of mind, individuals with ASD similarly have difficulties attributing mental states to themselves (e.g., Frith & Happé, 1999). It seems reasonable to consider whether impulsivity might be affected by the degree to which individuals are aware of their own thoughts.

Frith and Happé (1999) proposed a model regarding theory of mind and self- consciousness in individuals with ASD, suggesting ASD to be a useful tool in investigating self-consciousness. They reported similarities between theory of mind (an ability to impute beliefs to others) and self-consciousness (an ability to attribute mental states to oneself). Frith and Happé (1999) and Kazak, Collis and Lewis (1997) found evidence to support the notion that individuals who lack an ability to access the mental states of others, also have limited ability in accessing their own mental states.

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In a study by Perner et al. (1989), children with ASD were asked questions about the contents of a cup in terms of what they knew (knowledge attribution) and saw (visual access) and what an experimenter knew and saw. Knowledge about the contents of a cup varied as visual access differed: on some occasions only the child was invited to look, and on other occasions only the experimenter was allowed to look. Perner et al. found that most of the autistic children in their study correctly evaluated visual access, for both themselves and for the other experimenter. However, the "sample of autistic children were much less able to make correct knowledge attributions to themselves or to the other person" (p. 695), suggesting that individuals with autism have some difficulties with self- awareness and attributing the knowledge of others.

Perner et al. also reported evidence that offers support for a late acquisition of explicit theory of mind through learning in individuals with high functioning ASD and Asperger's Syndrome. If this is possible through learning then could the awareness of one's thoughts be a skill in which facilitation could occur? Perner, Lang and Kloo (2002) carried out research on theory of mind and self-control, within which Wimmer (1989) and Perner (1991) "suggested that children gain better self-control with a better understanding of their mind" (p. 763). Therefore, it appears possible that an increase in such awareness might improve an individual’s self-control.

Previous research identified in this review produced evidence in support of behavioural self-control training procedures to reduce impulsive responding. If conscious thought is involved in choice, it may be possible to reduce impulsive

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behaviour by increasing an individual's thinking in choice situations. Therapies such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy have been employed in anger management programmes and have produced effective results (e.g., Beck & Fernandez, 1998).

Mobini, Pearce, Grant, Mills and Yeomans (2006) identified a possible component of impulsive behaviour as a limited ability to fully consider the consequences of behaviour. They studied the relationship between impulsivity, cognitive distortions and sensation seeking and found that those with higher impulsive behaviour had more cognitive distortions and higher sensation seeking scores. More specifically, they found that impulsiveness and cognitive distortions were positively correlated, and age and cognitive distortions were negatively correlated. Mobini et al. (2006) suggested that cognitive behavioural therapy should consider information processing to facilitate comprehension of different situations and improve self-control, and highlighted the importance of understanding such cognitive distortions in attempts to generate effective interventions.