SEGUNDA OBJECIÓN DEMOCRÁTICA:

As flagged above, this section reviews the broad area of literature related to simulated learning. There is little or no extant Thai literature on this topic. Nevertheless the available literature related to Western contexts is still of some interest as a background to this study, because much of the information published in English is relevant to subjects taught in business and management fields in Thailand and elsewhere especially as the push is to become more 'Western' in curriculum and

pedagogy. This refers to the increased focus on 'student-centred' learning in Western countries, and an emphasis on autonomous learning, where students construct their own learning, which is often most effective in a curriculum which encourages 'learning by doing' or experiential learning.

Generally simulation differs from other forms of experiential learning by being removed from 'real-life' contexts while practising behaviour which occur in the situation being simulated. For example, in technical courses, it refers to multi-media tutorial programmers. As several researchers (see, for example, Bridges, 1992; Coles, 1997; Kolb, 1984; Schwartz, Mennin & Webb, 2001) found, simulation places students in a particular situation and assigns them a role within that scenario. The user takes on the role and responsibilities in a virtual environment. Therefore, the students gain valuable problem-solving and decision-making skills. Examples of simulations include: simulation games, simulation in language or role-plays, simulation and case study, flight simulation and on-line business simulation programs. There are many advantages of simulated learning cited in the literature. For example, simulated learning provides 'life-like' experience as suggested by Print (1993) and Tansey (cited in Cudworth, 1995). Print (1993) suggested that simulated learning is a way to facilitate effective learning whereby students are able to role- play 'real-life' activities. He noted that students learn things effectively if the activities are 'as life-like as possible' (p. 176).

In addition, simulated learning helps students to develop business judgement in strategic business contexts. Thompson and Stappenbeck (1999) argued business strategy games provide valuable strategic decision-making practice, helping students develop business judgment as they encounter an array of business issues. They explained the benefits of business strategy games with reference to a particular game, as follows:

[They]… build your confidence in analysing the revenue-cost-profit economics of a business, help you understand how the functional pieces of a business fit together, and develop your powers of managerial judgment. You will gain needed experience and practice in assessing business risk, analysing industry and competitive conditions, making decisions from a companywide perspective, thinking strategically about a company's situation and future prospects, developing strategies and revising them in light of changing conditions, and applying what you have learned…The bottom line is that playing 'The Business Strategy Game' will make

you better prepared for playing the game of business in real-life (p. 3).

Related to experimental simulations is problem-based learning (PBL) which explores a practical application of simulation-based learning in an actual workplace situation. PBL is used in many medical schools for example (Coles, 1997; Schwartz et al., 2001). Similarly, simulated learning in business is used to help students become skilled in applying their knowledge to actual business situations (Print, 1993) while they study business subjects, including: marketing, finance, accounting, human resource management and organisational management. Simulation provides a realistic situation, allowing for more extensive interaction by students, and for them to get more personally involved (Cudworth, 1995; Hyland, 1993; Knowles, 1980, 1984, 1990).

According to Paul (1996), the underlying concept of experiential learning can be expressed as 'learning by doing' (p. 750). Adams (1973) and Cudworth (1995) described business simulation as a way of students learning by doing, as simulated learning is experiential (Kolb, 1984), that is, it involves experience in 'real-life' contexts. When students learn by involvement in experiential forms of learning, this type of learning reflects reality. This view has also been expressed by several other scholars, for example, Print (1993), Tonks and Armitage (1997), Thomson and Stappenbeck (1999). Thus, these are generally considered to be very powerful learning strategies with numerous advantages, to educate qualified graduates for the world of work (UNESCO Education, 2001). The most important advantage of simulated learning is that it provides an opportunity to apply learning to the 'real world' (Cudworth, 1995; Waddel cited in Gilley, 1990). As Barnett and Hallam (1999) stated, students who have developed a well-formulated and integrated professional approach are likely to fare better than their less experienced peers when operating in the 'real-world'.

Livingston and Stoll (cited in Cudworth, 1995), described advantages of simulated learning as follows:

A simulation is self-motivating. In many cases students work as part of a team, learning from each other and practising co-operative skills. It has been suggested that simulations enable the less successful student to learn from the more successful (p. 261).

Cudworth (1995) argued that simulated learning occurs as a result of students' experiences of the process of working in a 'real-life' situation. Moreover, he argued another significant and important advantage of simulated learning is that simulations allow participants to work 'without the responsibility of the real world' (p. 261). Similarly, Waddel stated 'The learners can gain from simulations without paying the consequences for a wrong decision which would occur in a daily routine' (p. 274). Another crucial feature of an optimal system for simulated learning is its capability to keep track of the improvements of the students when they learn co-operatively (Cudworth, 1995; Pedler, 1991).

2.1.2 New Teaching Approaches in Higher Education Relevant to Simulated