Selección de una alternativa de aprovechamiento de los biosólidos

Today, electricity generation in all North African countries is highly based on conventional fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal. In Morocco and Egypt, electricity generation from hydro power plants contributes about 8 to 10% to the annual electricity mix. Generation from other renewable energy sources (mostly first wind power projects in Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt) is below 2% of the total electricity generation (Table 4). But until 2020 and 2030, ambitious RE targets have been set by national governments. An overview of the national RE targets is given in Table 6. The table also provides a summary of the detailed country analysis in the following sections.

Table 6: Status (2010) and targets (2020 and 2030) of electricity generation from renewable

energy sources (data sources are given in the following subsections)

Country Status in 2010 Target for 2020 Target for 2030

Morocco 23% RES of installed capacity (19.5% of hydro power and 3.5% of wind power)

42% RES of installed capacity (2 GW of wind and 2 GW of solar)

6 GW of wind power

Algeria <1% RES-E (hydro power) of electricity generation 10% RES-E of electricity generation 37% RES-E of electricity generation: CSP (70%), wind power (20%) and PV (10%) Tunisia <2% RES-E (hydro and wind

power) of electricity generation

No defined policy roadmap (study with ~12% RES-E of electricity generation)

No defined policy roadmap (study with ~12% RES-E of electricity generation) Libya 0% RES-E of electricity

generation

10% RES-E of electricity generation

30% RES-E of electricity generation

Egypt 10% RES-E of electricity generation (8.8% based on hydro power) 20% RES-E of electricity generation including 7.2 GW of wind power not identified

3.2.1 Morocco

Due to the lack of national reserves of fossil fuels, Morocco imports over 95% of its primary energy demand in form of natural gas, crude oil, oil products, coal and electricity from abroad. Furthermore, the installed power plants are not sufficient anymore to satisfy the strongly increasing electricity demand. Additionally, the load profile shows problematic daily demand peaks during evening hours. These are reasons why Morocco has to import large amounts of electricity from Spain over the HVAC interconnection in the Strait of Gibraltar. These imports represent up to 20% of annually consumed electricity in Morocco (ONE, 2011).

CHAPTER 3. Electricity system of North Africa 41

To overcome the deficient national supply situation, a renewable energy strategy was formulated in 2009 to increase the energy share from own resources such as wind farms and solar power plants which can benefit from excellent weather and site conditions in Morocco. By 2020, the share of installed capacities based on renewable energy sources is targeted with 42% compared to 26% in 2008 (Benkhadra, 2009). A renewable energy law (Law 13.09 of February 11, 2010) was adopted to facilitate the grid access of RE projects at the medium and high voltage level while power purchase agreements can guarantee payments to the investors over a time period of 25 years. As these payments are oriented on the general electricity prices of ONE, the investment security and higher tariffs for the promotion of RE projects are not included in this general law (ONE, 2011). The renewable energy strategy includes specific installation targets for solar and wind power plants. By 2020, the installed capacity of wind power plants should be increased up to 2 GW, mainly at wind power sites located at the country’s Atlantic coast and in the Northern regions. In the long-term by 2030, the capacity forecasts range up to 6 GW of wind power installed in Morocco (Benkhadra, 2009). In 2009, Morocco also passed a national solar strategy for the implementation of solar power plants with a total capacity of 2 GW by 2020. By 2015, the Moroccan Agency for Solar Energy (Masen) created by the law (57.09) in spring 2010 is obliged to provide the project tenders and support the financing of 500 MW of installed CSP and PV capacities which will diversify the generation portfolio of Morocco. In a second step, the full capacity of 2 GW should be reached by 2020. Exporting electricity from renewable energy sources from Morocco to Europe could enhance the renewable energy sector by external stimulation as the existing interconnection with Spain gives the Moroccan electricity sector a potential pioneering role for a future scenario of Mediterranean electricity exchange (Kost et al., 2011a).

3.2.2 Algeria

Electricity generation in Algeria is largely based on conventional power plants which run with fossil fuels from national resources (natural gas and oil). Similar to its neighbor countries, Algeria has a strong roadmap to invest in new power plant capacities over the next 10 years. The long-term strategic plans for renewable energy sources include defined goals for the deployment of renewable electricity until 2030. In the medium term, a share of 5% should be reached by constructing first wind farms and large CSP solar fields which feed their thermal heat into the steam cycle of combined cycle plants. By 2030, the Algerian government aims the implementation of RE power plants contributing up to 37% of the total generation. The generation mix of renewable energy sources should consist of CSP (70%), wind (20%) and PV (10%) (CIF, 2009). The Ministry of Energy and Mining plans the installation of 12 GW based on renewable energy sources which means an installation of approximately 8 GW of CSP, 1 GW of PV and 1.8 GW of wind power (MEM, 2013). But installed capacities of RE projects are quite small and limited to a few pilot projects for wind onshore, PV and CSP (Stambouli, 2011). The only large RE capacity is the integrated solar combined cycle (ISCC) power plant in Hassi R'mel with an electricity capacity of 30 MW. But is generation share on the country’s electricity demand is insignificant and the wind projects are at an early stage of development although the legal support for renewable energy has been in place for several years now (Boukelia and Mecibah, 2013). The promotion of renewable energy is controlled by the Electricity Law of 5th of February 2002 which defines the financing of renewable energy projects either by premium tariffs or direct subsidies from the government. This framework offers premiums for electricity generated by renewable energy sources which range for +100% to +300% of the regular electricity prices (Tsikalakis et al., 2011). But all RE projects suffer under very low regular

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prices. Nevertheless, decentralized, autonomous systems have gained some attraction during the implementation phase of the rural electrification program by substituting diesel units. As large areas of Algeria are not grid-connected due to large distances of some regions from the existing electrical grid, further potential for off-grid solutions of renewable energy sources does exist in these areas (Tsikalakis et al., 2011).

3.2.3 Tunisia

Due to a relatively higher share of electricity demand by industry and tourism in Tunisia, the daily peak load appears during 1 to 3 pm. That contrasts all other North African countries which show a daily peak load between 8 and 11 pm. Similar to the neighbor countries, the generation portfolio is also based on conventional power plants (99%) which are supplied by national fuel resources and fuel imports from Libya and Algeria. Tunisia expects to increase the share from renewable energy sources during the next years as the first wind farms (total about 100 MW) are already commissioned and in operation (STEG, 2011). However, defined long- term policy goals for the development of renewable energy sources and a national strategy do currently not exist. By 2030 a total capacity of 4.3 GW from RES is planned to be reached by solar and wind projects. In 2009, the Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Fund (FNME) was installed to support the market introduction in Tunisia. Short-term renewable energy targets are set to share of 4.3% from RES of the electricity total generation in 2014. The achievement of targets should be provided by a high share of wind power as the wind potential at the Tunisian coast shows attractive conditions. A strategic study of renewable energy development in Tunisia projects a future share of renewable energy sources of approximately 12% in 2020 and 2030 (ANME, 2013). Small-scale solar projects of PV and CSP have been supported financially by the Tunisian Solar plan for a few years now.

3.2.4 Libya

In Libya, the electricity is completely generated by power plants using oil (62%) and natural gas (38%) (Zaroug, 2012). The state-owned utility company GECOL (General Electricity Company of Libya) is responsible for electricity generation, transport and distribution. It targets to expand the generation portfolio and to replace old oil-fired power plants by new open cycle gas turbines and combined cycle power plants in the next years. System efficiency and losses are an important issue in the power system of Libya as the efficiency of old existing power plants is reported as very low (~29% in 2006) while transmission and distribution losses account for about 14% of the total generation (Reegle, 2013).

During the revolution in 2011, a large portion of the electrical grid was damaged and construction of new power plants has been interrupted or stopped. This causes large problems for the electricity system in Libya in 2012 and 2013 as regular power cuts in the capital Tripoli show the vulnerability of the electricity system. In many evening hours available power capacity is below demand peaks (Grant and Wahab, 2012). With Egypt and Tunisia, commercial arrangements regulate the electricity exchange. However, the volume of exchanged electricity between Libya and Egypt or Tunisia is negligible. The interconnection to Tunisia should be put into practice but the synchronization with the Maghrebian-European electrical grid has failed so far.

National targets for renewable energy sources are set to 10% in 2020 and 30% in 2030 and they should be reached by the installation of large wind and solar power plants. Within the next

CHAPTER 3. Electricity system of North Africa 43

5 to 10 years, 750 MW of wind capacity are announced for the Mediterranean coastal area, which has a good wind potential. The Renewable Energy Authority of Libya (REAOL) was founded in 2007 and subordinated to the Ministry of Energy, Water and Gas. REAOL has the objective to implement RE projects, increase the share of renewable energy sources, coordinate the national and international industry in the field of renewable energy in Libya and define the required legislation to promote renewable energy (Zaroug, 2012). However, by 2013 the installed capacity of renewable energy sources is limited to small wind and PV power plants.

3.2.5 Egypt

The Egyptian electricity market represents the largest electricity market in the region with an annual electricity demand of 118 TWh in 2010 (which comprises about 51% of the total annual electricity demand in North Africa). Due to the depletion of national oil and gas resources, the Supreme Council of Energy declared a new energy strategy in 2008 to increase the use of RE technologies and to reduce the dependency from fossil fuels at the same time as fossil fuels provide over 90% of the generated electricity today (Ibrahim, 2012). The remaining 10% of the electricity are generated by hydro power plants at the river Nile and by recently developed wind farms in the Zafarana region along the coast of the Red Sea. In 2011, the first CSP project in Kuyamat started operation by feeding thermal energy into a combined cycle gas power plant. The electricity grid in Egypt consists of backbone line of 500 kV (connection between Aswan dam and Cairo region) and further high-voltage transmission lines of 400 kV, 220 kV and 133 kV which cover the populated Nile Valley and Delta as well as Sinai with an overall distance of 21,253 km in 2013 (AUPTDE, 2013).

The strongly increasing electricity demand in Egypt (6.7% in 2010) leads to a large annual investment demand for new power plants. Ageing generation and transmission infrastructure coupled with a rising demand of the industrial and private sector cause recurrent electricity blackouts. During the summer of 2010, these problems have resulted in problematic, nationwide electricity blackouts during peak load hours (Saad Hussein, 2012). Without private investments and larger competition in the electricity sector, it seems to be difficult for the national utility (Egyptian Electricity Holding Company EEHC) to cover the rising electricity in the long run. Therefore, the business divisions for generation, transmission and distribution of EEHC have been unbundled and separated into smaller entities during the last years to create a more liberalized market, but none of these companies have been privatized so far. In 2010, a share of about 9% of annually generated electricity is produced by independent power producers (EEHC, 2011).

For electricity generation from renewable energy sources, a long-term target of 20% is set for the year 2020, including a high share of wind power (7.2 GW). The implementation of first large-scale RE projects and framework conditions are under the aegis of the state-owned New and Renewable Energy Authority (NREA) which is active in research and testing, decides on policy frameworks and support tariffs, and holds the ownership of power plants in Egypt. Although prior grid access for electricity from renewable energy sources is already defined by law, financing and support situation of renewable energy is still very difficult in Egypt. Further barriers for renewable energy technologies are set by a market environment which puts large subsidies on fossil fuels in the electricity sector (Castel, 2012). This clearly limits the competiveness of renewable energy technologies in the Egypt energy system at the same time.

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