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Designers’ activities constitute the design process that accompanies each project.

Rather than a series of predefined steps, the design process is best explained as a system of metaphorical spaces (Cross 2016:173). These metaphorical spaces divide different types of linked activities that together drive innovation (Cross 2016:173). Design processes differ according to the field or discipline in which they take place as well as the types of problem that require solving. Cross (2016:173) argues that all design projects pass through three spaces, namely inspiration, ideation and implementation. Inspiration can be an identified problem, a brief or an opportunity that drives the search for solutions whereas ideation refers to the process of generating, developing and testing ideas that may lead to solutions (Cross 2016:173). Implementation charts the path of manufacturing and bringing the product to the market. This process is iterative, cycling between the first two in particular as ideas are refined and new directions taken (Cross 2016:173). Cross’ model for the design process is one of many which may be applied depending on the designer’s discipline and the nature of the problem.

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Another design process model is that of Aspelund (2010), a design scholar hailing from the fashion discipline. Aspelund’s (2010:xiv) model includes seven stages of the design process namely inspiration, identification, conceptualisation, exploration, definition or modelling, communication, and production. Inspiration involves examining sources of inspiration in order to identify constraints and concerns (Aspelund 2010:xiv). Identification is followed by conceptualisation and exploration, which involves outlining concepts through sketching, writing or experimentation in order to refine the design idea (Aspelund 2010:xiv). The design is then defined by committing to decisions, modelling the idea and determining how to provide clear communication to other stakeholders such as production staff, consumers and colleagues (Aspelund 2010:xiv). The process ends with the production of a final product. Aspelund’s design process is more extensive than Cross’, showing a detailed and extensive set of activities that lead to the design of a product.

As stated earlier,⁶ designed products can take many forms. Schön (2015:109) states that design knowledge is evident not only in a designer’s ideas and activities, but also in their interaction with objects. Kimbell (2009b:12) argues that the process of design cannot be understood without considering the products themselves and how they are used. A key part of the practice of designers trained in the arts tradition, such as fashion, is consideration of the visual appearance of objects (Julier 2006). Moreover, prototypes and drawings also form a product of design activity as these act as important communication tools when defining and solving problems and during collaborative activities (Kimbell 2009a:3). Products consequently refer not only to material objects but also to the consequences and effects of activities.

By using the concept of design praxis within this study, the focus is not only on the design practices (activities and processes) of South African slow fashion designers, but also on their design approaches and products.

6 For a discussion of the definition of design as product, refer to Subsection 2.2.5, p18

23 2.4. DESIGN FOR SUSTAINABILITY

The previous section conceptualized the study of design practices within the area of design praxiology. This section explores the moral implications of design, defines design for sustainability and introduces issue-led design.

Following the Industrial Revolution in the eighteenth and nineteenth century, the economic model of capitalism has become the universal mantra endorsed by a vast majority of the world’s nations (Fuad-Luke 2009:xix). Although this economic model has brought vast amounts of progress in terms of technology, industry and consumption, it has also wreaked havoc on the natural world and the distribution of wealth in developing countries (Strauss 2015:82). Capitalism also has an impact on the design profession, and influences the sustainability considerations of designers.

According to Dorst (2003:152), the profession of design is a moral one, due to the inevitable side effects of the design process and product. As stated by Nelson and Stolterman (2002:12), design activities have the potential to greatly service humanity, and has historically done so. However, it has also done great harm.

This harm arises due to underestimation of the complexity of design problems and a lack of understanding of the dynamics surrounding the introduction of a new set of variables into a complex environment (Nelson & Stolterman 2012:185). Within this socio-cultural space, there are countless needs and problems that can (and should) be addressed by designers, with a key focus on the possible consequences of their solutions.

Sustainability is seen as the pre-eminent challenge of the twenty-first century, and is grounded in ecological praxis and systems thinking (Fuad-Luke 2009:23-24). In 2015, the United Nations presented their Sustainable Development Goals (or SDGs) as shown in Figure 2.1 below. Of particular relevance to this study are SDG #11 and SDG #12. SDG #11 Sustainable cities and communities refers to the goal of making cities and communities safe, sustainable and resilient (Sustainable Development Knowledge Platforms 2018:1). SDG #12 Responsible consumption and production aims to ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns (Sustainable Development Knowledge Platforms 2018:1).

Within the context of this study, the concept of sustainability thus focuses on the

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development of sustainable cities and communities and ensuring responsible consumption and production patterns through design.

Figure 2.1 United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (Sustainable Development Goals communications materials 2018:1)

Designers play a key role in creating sustainable futures. Both Fuad-Luke (2009:87) and Fry (2009:42) argue that in order to address these issues, designers are the first group that need to change their behaviour in the way that they approach design. Fry (2009:46) further states that in order for this change to occur design thinking, process and practice need to be redirected towards a balanced focus between what is known as the triple bottom-line: planet, profit and people. Sustainability consequently presents new challenges and goals for designers in order to improve and enhance existing conditions. Furthermore, it is an envisioned ideal strived for by sustainable designers through their approaches to certain issues.

2.4.1 Issue-led design approaches

Papanek was amongst the first design scholars to note the moral responsibility of the design community towards addressing socio-environmental concerns (Papanek 1985:ix). He argues that contemporary design only satisfies superficial desires and wants whilst neglecting genuine human needs (Papanek 1985:15;1995:142). Papanek (1995:48) suggested the need for increased ecological considerations in both design education and practice. Design thus

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becomes a “bridge between human needs, culture and ecology” (Papanek 1995:29). Papanek’s work inspired further research into the development of issue-led approaches to design that takes socio-environmental concerns into consideration.

Due to the complexity of sustainability, Fuad-Luke (2009:20) explains that different design approaches enable designers to deal with specific issues. These issue-led approaches fall under the field of design but seek to address certain issues and differ in terms of the approaches that designers adopt. In this sense, the field of design is already constructed to deal with the meta-challenge of sustainability, hence relevant examples of these issue-led approaches include eco- and green design, human-centred design, design for social innovation and slow design.

Eco- and green design deals with issues related to the environmental impact of design (Fuad-Luke 2008:21-22). Eco-design considers both the efficient use of environmental resources during the design process as well as the impact of the artefact on the environment itself (Smal 2013:43; Bhamra & Lofthouse 2007:39).

Green design considers “ecologically sound products and therefore includes consumer awareness and consumption patterns” (Smal 2013:43). These design approaches are often used interchangeably but refer to the considered use of environmental resources in the design as well as in the effects of its use. The considerations of the user are extended further in a human-centred design approach.

In his book The Design of Everyday Things, Norman (2002) explains the human-centred design approach, which is often used interchangeably with the term user-centred design. This approach considers “human needs, capabilities, and behaviour first” and designs for these considerations (Norman 2002:9). Moreover, this approach requires starting with an understanding of users and the needs that the design should ultimately meet (Norman 2002:9). Krippendorff (2005:87) states that human-centred design places emphasis on the importance of all stakeholders in design, including users. This includes the effects of design including the social, cultural and technological consequences on these stakeholders (Krippendorff 2005:87). Human-centred design thus shifts design

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from being technology-centred in order to design products that genuinely satisfy users by involving appropriate stakeholders in the design process.⁷

Another approach that addresses human needs is design for social innovation.

Manzini (2015:11) explores approaches for social innovation in which the goals are innovations that improve and enhance society and its ability to act. This design methodology encompasses all design activities that can “activate, sustain, and orient processes of social change toward sustainability” (Manzini 2015:62).

Concepts explored in this design approach include reconnecting local spaces, and establishing “new ecologies of relationships between people and between people and the environment” (Manzini 2015:4). This design approach specifically addresses social concerns and views services or social systems as designed products.

The examples discussed above are only a few examples of issue-led design approaches, but were chosen due to their relation to the present study. The following subsection discusses slow design as the main issue-led design approach used for this study.

2.4.2 Introducing slow design as an issue-led approach

Slow design is an issue-led design approach that considers a holistic combination of the other issue-led approaches discussed above (Fletcher 2010:261). However, its key focus lies in the philosophy and goals that guide the designer. Slow design

“encourages a slower, more considered and reflective process, with the goal of positive well-being for individuals, societies, environments and economies” (Fuad-Luke 2009:21-22). This design approach aims to prolong product longevity as well as provide deep product satisfaction (Niinimäki & Hassi 2011:1829). Slow products are designed to achieve high quality, ethical value, durability, sustainable material usage and timeless style (Niinimäki & Hassi 2011:1829).

The slow design approach and design praxis form an ideal relationship in that reflection, consideration and mindfulness inform both, thus enabling the slow

7 ‘Technology-centred’ refers to an approach which is driven by technological progress, often at the expense of socio-cultural considerations (Thackara 2005:3).

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designer’s activities to improve the wellbeing of their surrounding environments through slow products. Slow design is more extensively conceptualised in the following chapter as this is the primary design approach explored in this study.

2.5. FASHION DESIGN PRAXIS AND SUSTAINABILITY

Before concluding this chapter, it is necessary to contextualise design praxis within the fashion field. As fashion deals with different products (clothing) and problems compared to other fields, such as architecture and graphic design, it makes sense that its approaches, activities and products may also differ somewhat. This section defines fashion and clothing, explains fashion design processes and frames sustainability in fashion design praxis.

In a broader context, fashion refers to the chosen clothing worn at a specific time or period representing the prevailing lifestyle and culture of the day (Bye 2010:24). Kawamura (2004:1) differentiates between the terms clothing and fashion by defining what each term represents:

Clothing is material production while fashion is symbolic production.

Clothing is tangible while fashion is intangible. Clothing is a necessity while fashion is an excess. Clothing has a utility function while fashion has a status function.

Clothing is consequently a physical product that is worn on the body, whereas fashion refers to the prevailing socio-cultural influences making a particular garment desirable and pleasurable.

Outsiders to the fashion industry may perceive fashion design as effortless and as a result of natural talent; they may thus be unaware of the creative and technical expertise required (Brannon 2011:3). In order to create a product, the design must harmonize both structural and decorative design with materials (Brannon 2011:3). Hence, fashion design requires a high level of technical skill in addition to an understanding of production methods and available technology (Brannon 2011:3). Fashion designers also require an intuitive ability to accurately read trends and understand consumers in order to design a viable product (Brannon 2011:3). Fashion design consequently requires an understanding of technology, the consumer and trends during the design process.

28 2.5.1 Framing design praxis in fashion

Within the field of fashion, little research in academia or industry systematically has examined fashion designers’ design processes (McGilp, Eckert & Earl 2016:2521). McGilp et al (2016:2521) attribute this to the fact that fashion designers rarely record their design processes. This established the need for their case studies on this subject. They found that their respondents started with a brief, which provided a starting point for inspiration and research (McGilp et al 2016:2528). These activities were followed by design development, review, revisions and manufacture. Moreover, they found that the fashion design process is influenced by a variety of external factors such as time, financial resources and seasonal planning (McGilp et al 2016:2529). Their design process model showed fewer stages in comparison to that of Aspelund (2010).⁸

In another study, Rissanen (2007) argues that fashion designers design in different ways and although their processes can be simplified into core stages, the order in which they follow varies from designer to designer. Their design processes all begin with the initial “manifestation” of the design idea and finishes with a final product (Rissanen 2007:2). Core stages that may iterate throughout the process include generating conceptual ideas, sketching, fabric draping, patternmaking, prototyping, and pattern and design alteration (Rissanen 2007:2-3). However, Rissanen (2007:2) does note that his respondents rarely reflected in hindsight upon activities. Rissanen’s study suggests that fashion designers’ design processes do not necessary follow the same order of stages, yet the core stages consist of similar activities.

These authors indicate that a research gap exists within academia regarding systematic theories of fashion-specific design processes. Yet, the design process models of McGilp et al (2016) and Rissanen (2007) provide an initial starting point to study fashion design praxis. They indicate that fashion designers begin the design process by approaching a design idea or problem, proceed to develop possible solutions through various activities that result in a final product. Fashion design praxis also draws on knowledge about technology, production and the

8 Aspelund’s (2010) design process model includes stages of inspiration, identification, conceptualization, exploration, definition or modelling, communication, and production. This design process is explained in Subsection 2.3.4, p21.

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consumer who ultimately uses the product. Sustainability considerations in fashion design praxis consequently need to be framed.

2.5.2 Framing sustainability in fashion design praxis

Throughout the twentieth century, fashion has progressed from the beautiful, yet mostly unattainable clothing of haute couture designers, to more accessible, pleasurable and disposable styles (Bye 2010:24). Fashion consumption has increased substantially in recent decades due to the advent of transnational fast fashion companies utilising global transportation and production value chains (Bye 2010:149). However, there has recently been a renewed focus on ethical practice and socio-environmental sustainability within the fashion system due to concerns regarding global warming, economic recession, social justice and, ultimately, a growing need for personal fulfilment (Bye 2010:149). Sustainability within the context of fashion typically includes fashion production or design methods which are ethically or environmentally conscious (Gordon & Hill 2015:i).

Fashion overconsumption presents a key wicked design problem of the twenty-first century with scholars such as Fletcher (2008), Strauss (2015), Clark (2008) and Fletcher and Grose (2012) seeking to explore alternative design approaches such as eco-fashion, ethical fashion and slow fashion. Eco-fashion is a design approach which focuses on designing sophisticated and aesthetically pleasing clothing with processes and materials that reflect consciousness of environmental, human and animal rights issues (Winge 2008:515). Ethical fashion emphasises social concerns by aiming to minimize negative impacts on employees and animals (Reimers, Magnuson & Chao 2016:388). Slow fashion follows the philosophy of slow design with the aim of finding alternative ways to improve the well-being of all stakeholders in the fashion industry (Pookalangara & Shepherd 2013:201). It is interesting to note that these issue-led approaches are similar in that they share the same goal of socio-environmental well-being, yet their means or processes of accomplishing this goal may differ. The slow fashion design approach is further discussed in the chapter that follows.

30 2.6. CONCLUSION

This chapter has defined design and conceptualised design praxis. Design was defined as understanding existing conditions, envisioning improved ones as well as the process of bringing these into being. Design was conceptualised as an activity involving analytical problem-solving, creative idea generation and the utilisation of instruments such as sketching, planning and modelling. Design is also an ability to deal with complex, wicked problems such as creating socio-environmentally sustainable futures. Moreover, design refers to the understanding and innovation of products in both physical and social forms by considering the effects of products on users and their environments.

One of the main design research areas is design praxiology, which studies the reflective practices of designers. Design praxis extends beyond noting designers’

practices and includes the approaches that drive it as well as the end-product or result. Design praxis also involves the outlook of design-as-practice, which traces the effects of a designed product as well as its relationship with the stakeholders and environments involved. Intentions and values influence the designer’s approach to designing. Sets of similar designer activities form part of a systematic design process allowing designers to replicate the quality of their designs or approach specific problems. Examples of design processes include models by Cross (2016) and Aspelund (2010). These processes can be used to understand the stages of a design project.

Sustainability was discussed as a key challenge of the twenty-first century, in which the design profession can act as a driver of change. Issue-led design approaches were introduced which deal with specific sustainability issues; these include eco-design, human-centred design, design for social innovation and slow design. Design praxis was also localised to fashion design. Sustainability challenges in the fashion industry were discussed including obscure working conditions and manufacture origins, overconsumption and unethical practices.

Issue-led fashion design approaches were introduced which were developed for the fashion field including eco-fashion, ethical fashion and slow fashion. Slow fashion design forms the primary design approach that is explored within the present study and is conceptualised in the following chapter through review of relevant literature.

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CHAPTER 3: SLOW FASHION

The previous chapter has unpacked the concepts of design and design praxis. This was followed by a discussion on issue-led design and design for sustainability. This chapter discusses the concept of slow fashion. Section 3.2 introduces the notion of speed in order to understand the underpinnings for slow fashion. Section 3.3 provides brief background to the slow movement that forms the cultural roots of slow fashion. Section 3.4 expands upon different views on slow fashion including definitions for fast and slow fashion, and slow fashion design within global and local contexts. Section 3.5 unpacks Clark’s framework within the context of this study, following examples of both international and local slow fashion design.

Section 3.6 concludes the chapter in preparation for the subsequent chapter on research design and methodology.

The purpose of this chapter is to survey current literature on slow fashion in order to unpack the theoretical framework for the study. Clark’s (2008:427-446) framework on three lines of reflection in slow fashion is concerned with the activities, goals and motivations that drive slow fashion (discussed further in 3.6).

The purpose of this chapter is to survey current literature on slow fashion in order to unpack the theoretical framework for the study. Clark’s (2008:427-446) framework on three lines of reflection in slow fashion is concerned with the activities, goals and motivations that drive slow fashion (discussed further in 3.6).