tecn0lógico
II. ARTEFACTOS: Un sistema tecnológicamente convergente,
1. Del Service-Core al Mechanical-Core: el núcleo de servicios y la convergencia de los sistemas tecnológicos
1.1. SERVICE CORE, HOUSE OF UTILITIES, MECHANICAL CORE
ACEA. (2016). Passenger Car Fleet by Fuel Type. Retrieved April 14, 2016, from
European Automobile Manufacturers Association:
http://www.acea.be/statistics/tag/category/passenger-car-fleet-by-fuel-type Adamson, F. B. (2001). Democratisation and the Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy.
Political Science Quarterly, 116(2), 277-303.
Axelrod, R. (1984). The Evolution of Co-operation. London: Penguin. Ayres, I., & Braithwaite, J. (1992). Responsive regulation : transcending the
deregulation debate. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bennear, L. S., & Cognlianese, C. (2012, May 8). The Performance of Regulatory Performance Standards. Retrieved from RegBlog:
http://www.regblog.org/2012/05/08/the-performance-of-performance- standards/
Bennett, A., & Checkel, J. T. (2015). Process Tracing: From Philosophical Roots to Best Practices. In A. Bennett, & J. T. Checkel, Process Tracing: From Metaphor to Analytic Tool (pp. 3-39). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brehm, J., & Hamilton, J. T. (1996, May). Noncompliance in Environmental
Reporting: Are Violators Ignorant, or Evasive, of the Law? American Journal of Political Science, 40(2), 444-477.
Carder, D., Thompson, G., Besch, M., Thiruvegadam, A., & Kappanna, H. (2014). In- use emissions testing of light-duty diesel vehicles in the U.S. Retrieved from West Virginia University: http://www.theicct.org/use-emissions-testing-light- duty-diesel-vehicles-us
54
Carslaw, D., Beevers, S., Tate, J. E., Westmoreland, E., & Williams, M. (2011).
Recent evidence concerning higher NOx emissions from passenger cars and
light duty vehicles. Atmospheric Environment, 45(39), 7053-7063. Chayes, A., & Chayes, A. H. (1995). The New Sovereignty: Compliance with
International Regulatory Agreements. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ClientEarth. (2015). Legality of the Conformity Factors in the RDE tests. London:
ClientEarth.
Coglianese, C. (2015, October 5). What Volkswagen Reveals about the Limits of Performance-Based Regulation. Retrieved from RegBlog:
http://www.regblog.org/2015/10/05/coglianese-volkswagen-performance- based-regulation/
Coglianese, C., Nash, J., & Olmstead, T. (2003). Performance-Based Regulation: Prospects and Limitations in Health, Safety, and Environmental Protection.
Administrative Law Review, 55(4), 705-729.
Collier, D. (2011). Understanding Process Tracing. Political Science and Politics, 44(4), 823-830.
Crisp, J. (2016, June 10). US regulator: Only an EU supervisor can stop another Dieselgate. Retrieved from EurActiv:
https://www.euractiv.com/section/transport/interview/us-regulator-only-an-eu- supervisor-can-stop-another-dieselgate/
DieselNet. (2006). Cars and Light-Duty Trucks—Tier 2. Retrieved from DieselNet: https://www.dieselnet.com/standards/us/ld_t2.php
Dorn, W., & Fulton, A. (1997). Securing Compliance with Disarmament Treaties: Carrots, Sticks, and the Case of North Korea. Global Governance, 3(1), 17-40.
55
DoT. (2016). Vehicle Emissions Testing Programme - Presented to Parliament by the
Secretary of State for Transport by Command of Her Majesty. London: Department of Transport.
Downs, G. W., Rocke, D. M., & Barsoom, P. N. (1996). Is the Good News about
Compliance Good News about Cooperation? International Organization,
50(3), 379–406.
EC. (2015, September 24). European Commission statement on air pollutant car
emissions. Retrieved from European Commission:
http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_STATEMENT-15-5713_en.htm EC. (2016, June 27). Transport Emissions: Air pollutants from road transport.
Retrieved from European Commission Directorate-General for Environment : http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/transport/road.htm
EEA. (2016). Explaining road transport emissions: A non-technical guide.
Copenhagen: European Environment Agency.
EP. (2015, December 17). European Parliament Committees. Retrieved from
Emissions Measurements in the Automotive Sector:
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/committees/en/emis/home.html EP. (2016). Legal Obligations Relating to emission measurements in the EU
automotive sector. Brussels: Policy Department A: Economic and Scientific Policy.
Etienne, J. (2011). Compliance Theory: A Goal Framing Approach. Law & Policy, 33(3), 305-333.
Evangelista, M. (2015). Explaining the Cold War's End: Process tracing all the way down? In A. Bennett, & J. T. Checkel, Process Tracing: From Metaphor to Analytical Tool (pp. 153-185). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
56
Ewing, J., & Tabuchi, H. (2016, July 19). Volkswagen Scandal Reaches All the Way to the Top, Lawsuits Say. Retrieved from The New York Times:
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/20/business/international/volkswagen-ny- attorney-general-emissions-scandal.html
Franco, V., Posada, F., German, J., & Mock, P. (2014). Real-world exhaust emissions from modern diesel cars. Retrieved from The International Council on Clean Transportation : http://www.theicct.org/real-world-exhaust-emissions-diesel- cars
Franco, V., Sánchez, F. P., German, J., & Mock, P. (2014). Real World Exhaust Emissions from Modern Diesel Cars: A Meta-Analysis of PEMS Emission Data from EU (EURO 6) and US (Tier 2 Bin 5 / ULEV II) Diesel Passenger Cars. Berlin: The International Council on Clean Transportation.
Gates, G., Ewing, J., Russell, K., & Watkins, D. (2016, July 19). Explaining Volkswagen’s Emissions Scandal. Retrieved from The New York Times: http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/business/international/vw-diesel- emissions-scandal-explained.html
George, A. L., & Bennett, A. (2005). Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge: MIT Press.
GPO. (2011, July 1). Control of Emissions from New and In-Use Highway Vehicles
and Engines 40 CFR §86.1803-01. Retrieved from U.S. Government Publishing Office: https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/CFR-2011-title40- vol19/CFR-2011-title40-vol19-sec86-1803-01
Gunningham, N. (1974). Negotiated Non-Compliance: A Case Study of Regulatory Failure. Law and Policy, 9(1), 69-95.
57
Gunningham, N., Grabosky, P. N., & Sinclair, D. (1998). Smart Regulation: Designing Environmental Policy. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Haas, P. M. (1998). Compliance with EU Directives: Insights from International Relations and Comparative Politics. Journal of European Public Policy, 5(1), 17-37.
Haas, P. M., Keohane, R. O., & Levy, M. A. (1993). Institutions for the Earth:
Sources of Effective International Environmental Protection. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Hahn, R. W., & Stavins, R. N. (2016, May). Economic Incentives for Environmental
Protection: Integrating Theory and Practice. The American Economic Review,
82(2), 464-468.
Halperin, S., & Heath, O. (2012). Political Research: Methods and Practical Skills.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hutter, B. M. (1989). Variations in Regulatory Enforcement Styles. Law and Policy, 11(2), 153-74.
Hutter, B. M. (1997). Compliance: Regulation and Environment. Oxford: Clarendon
Press.
ICCT. (2015a). The Future of Vehicle Emissions Testing and Compliance: How to
align regulatory requirements, customer expectations, and environmental performance in the European Union. Berlin: The International Council on Clean Transportation.
ICCT. (2015b, December 21). Written evidence from The International Council on
Clean Transportation. Retrieved from UK Parliament:
http://data.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/committeeevidence.svc/evidencedoc ument/transport-committee/vehicle-type-approval/written/30743.pdf
58
ICCT. (2016, March). Defeat devices under the U.S. and EU passenger vehicle
emissions testing regulations. Berlin: The International Council on Clean Transportation.
Koerner, A. (2015, September 23). Volkswagen Senior Directors Meet For Crisis
Talks As Emissions Scandal Widens. Retrieved from Getty Images:
http://www.gettyimages.co.uk/event/volkswagen-senior-directors-meet-for- crisis-talks-as-emissions-scandal-widens-580439425?#rain-clouds-are-seen- over-a-volkswagen-symbol-at-the-main-entrance-picture-id489623938 Lake, D. (2010). Two Cheers for Bargaining Theory: Assessing Rationalist
Explanations for the Iraq War. International Security, 3, 7-52.
Lodge, M., & Wegrich, K. (2012). Managing Regulation: Regulatory Analysis, Politics and Policy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
May, P. (2003). Performance-based regulation and regulatory regimes: the saga of leaky buildings. Law & Policy, 25(4), 381-401.
McCubbins, M., & Schwartz, T. (1984). Congressional Oversight Overlooked: Police Patrols vs. Fire Alarms. American Journal of Political Science, 28, 167-69. McGee, P., & Campbell, P. (2016, April 22). Volkswagen falls to biggest annual loss
in its history. Retrieved from The Financial Times:
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/c8c5f6f4-08a4-11e6-b6d3-746f8e9cdd33.html
MECA. (2007, December). Emission Control Technologies. Retrieved from
Manufacturers of Emission Controls Association:
http://www.meca.org/galleries/files/MECA_Diesel_White_Paper_12-07- 07_final.pdf
Ministère de l’Environnement. (2016). Rapport final de la commission indépendante
59
Volkswagen: Contrôle des émissions de polluants atmosphériques et de CO2 mené sur 86 véhicules. Paris: Ministère de l’Environnement, de l'Énergie, et de la Mer.
Mitchell, R. B. (1994). Intentional Oil Pollution at Sea: Environmental Policy and Treaty Compliance. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Morriss, A. P., Yandle, B., & Dorchak, A. (2004). Regulating by Litigation: The
EPA's Regulation of Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines. Administrative Law Review,
56, 404-518.
Olson, M. (1965). The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Rees, J. (1988). Reforming The Workplace: A Study of Self-Regulation in Occupational Safety. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Sensors, Inc. (2016, August 20). Sensors' Emissions Measurement Solutions...on the Road...and Beyond. Retrieved from Sensors, Inc.: http://www.sensors- inc.com/
State of NY, and NY State Department of Environmental Conservation, v VW AG; Audi AG; VW USA.; Porsche AG; Porsche; and Porsche Cars North America, Inc. (Supreme Court of the State of State of New York, County of Albany July 19, 2016).
Tallberg, J. (2002). Paths to Compliance: Enforcement, Management, and the European Union. International Organisation, 56(3), 609-643.
The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. (2007a). Directive 2007/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 September 2007 establishing a framework for the approval of motor vehicles and their
60
trailers, and of systems, components and separate technical units intended for such vehicles. Official Journal of the European Union, 50, 1-160.
The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. (2007b).
Regulation (EC) No 715/2007 of the European Parliament and the Council on type approval of motor vehicles with respect to emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 5 + Euro 6) and on access to vehicle repair and maintenance information. Official Journal of the European Union, 171(1), 1- 16.
The World Bank. (2016). World Bank Open Data. Retrieved August 1, 2016, from
The World Bank: http://data.worldbank.org/
Thomas, B. (2016, July 19). Maura Healey, the Massachusetts attorney general, center, with Eric Schneiderman, the New York attorney general, left. They, along with Maryland’s attorney general, filed lawsuits over Volkswagen’s emissions deception. Retrieved from The New York Times:
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/20/business/international/volkswagen-ny- attorney-general-emissions-scandal.html
Transport & Environment. (2016). The ‘Dirty 30’ highly polluting diesel cars in Europe and the national regulators failing to act. Transport & Environment. Retrieved from The ‘Dirty 30’ highly polluting diesel cars in Europe and the national regulators failing to act:
https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2016_06_TE _briefing_Dirty_Thirty_FINAL.pdf
United States of America v. Volkswagen AG, Volkswagen Group of America, Inc., Volkswagen Group of America Chattanooga Operations, LLC, Dr. Ing. H.c. F. Porsche AG, and Porsche Cars North America, Inc., 2:16-cv-10006-LJM-MJH
61
(United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan January 4, 2016).
USEPA. (1999). The History of Reducing Tailpipe Emissions. Washington, D.C.:
United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Air and Radiation.
USEPA. (2015a, September 18). “Notice of Violation”, September 18, 2015.
Retrieved from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance: http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015- 10/documents/vw-nov-caa-09-18-15.pdf
USEPA. (2015b, November 11). “Notice of Violation”, November 2, 2015. Retrieved
from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance: http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015- 11/documents/vw-nov-2015-11-02.pdf
USEPA. (2016, June 28). Volkswagen Clean Air Act Partial Settlement. Retrieved from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance: https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/volkswagen-clean- air-act-partial-settlement
van Evera, S. (1997). Guide to the Methods for Students of Political Science. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Vlasic, B., & Kessler, A. M. (2015, September 21). It Took E.P.A. Pressure to Get VW to Admit Fault. Retrieved from New York Times:
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/22/business/it-took-epa-pressure-to-get-vw- to-admit-fault.html
VW. (2015, September 22). Volkswagen AG has issued the following information.
62
http://www.volkswagenag.com/content/vwcorp/info_center/en/news/2015/09/ Volkswagen_AG_has_issued_the_following_information.html
Weiss, M., Bonnel, P., Hummel, R., Manfredi, U., Colombo, R., Lanappe, G., . . . Sculati, M. (2011). Analyzing on-road emissions of light-duty vehicles with Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMS). Ispra: European
Commission Joint Research Centre.
WHO. (2014, March 25). 7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution.
Retrieved from World Health Organization:
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/air-pollution/en/ Willis, P. (2015, December 21). Letter from Paul Willis to Louise Ellman MP
regarding emissions violations. Retrieved from UK Parliament:
http://www.parliament.uk/documents/commons-committees/transport/08c- Letter-from-Paul-Willis-to-Louise-Ellman-dated-21-December-2015- Volkswagen-emissions.pdf
Young, O. R. (1992). The Effectiveness of International Institutions: Hard Cases and Critical Variables. In J. N. Rosenau, & E. O. Czempiel, Governance without Government: Order and Change in World Politics (pp. 160-194). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
63
A
PPENDIXA-I
NTERVIEWEESEU01 –– Emissions & Fuel Director (2016, July 20). European Automobile Manufacturer's Association. (D. Booker, Interviewer)
US01 –– Director in the Office of Transportation and Air Quality (2016, July 22). United States Environmental Protection Agency. (D. Booker, Interviewer)
US02 –– Director of Emissions Development (2016, July 18). Cummins Inc. (D. Booker, Interviewer)
US03 –– Emissions Testing Expert (2016, July 26). Retired Heavy-Duty Emissions Engineer at Cummins Inc., now a consultant with CyberMetrix. (D. Booker, Interviewer).
64
A
PPENDIXB–L
ISTO
FT
ABLES/P
ICTURESTable 1: EU NOx standards for diesel cars (EEA, 2016)
Table 2: U.S. NOx standards for diesel cars (USEPA, 1999)
Image 1: Difference between emissions limits and on-road measured values (Carslaw 2011; Franco, Sánchez, German, & Mock, 2014)
Image 2: USEPA vehicle compliance program for light-duty vehicles (ICCT, 2015a) Image 3: Type- approval process for new vehicle types in the EU (EP, 2016)
Image 4: Overview of the EU and U.S. vehicle emissions testing and enforcement schemes (ICCT, 2015)
Image 5: Picture courtesy of Sensors Inc., a leading supplier of PEMS equipment worldwide (Sensors, 2016)
Image 6: Maura Healey, the Massachusetts attorney general, center, with Eric Schneiderman, the New York attorney general, left. They, along with Maryland’s attorney general, filed lawsuits over Volkswagen’s emissions deception (Thomas, 2016).
Title Page Image: Volkswagen Senior Directors Meet For Crisis Talks As Emissions
65
A
PPENDIXC–P
ROCESST
RACING66
A
PPENDIXD–W
HICHC
ARSA
REA
FFECTED?
Jetta 2009 to 2015 Beetle 2012 to 2015
Passat 2012 to 2015 Jetta SportWagen 2009 to 2014
Touareg 2009 to 2016 Golf 2010-2015
Golf SportWagen 2015
(Gates, Ewing, Russell, & Watkins, 2016)
VW only, not including other VW AG vehicles (Audi A3 2010 to 2015; A6 Quattro
2014 to 2016; Audi A7 Quattro 2014 to 2016; Audi A8 and A8L 2014 to 2016; Audi Q5 2014 to 2016; Audi Q7 2009 to 2016; Porsche Cayenne 2013 to 2016)