The aim of this section is to present the main national priorities on gender equality in education. It provides an overview of the main problems in the area of equal opportunities in compulsory education. It also provides examples of projects to address these problems.
Gender equality policies in education have been identified in 23 EU Member States; the four exceptions are Italy, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia. In Italy, initiatives to promote gender equality in education are decentralised, and are coordinated by regional, provincial or municipal authorities. In Hungary, Poland and Slovakia, gender equality policies are primarily the responsibility of the Ministry of Social Affairs and in Hungary only strategic planning on gender mainstreaming is instigated at national level.132
In countries that do have national gender equality policies in education, the key priority areas that relate to access to education (even though in some cases this relationship is remote) focus primarily on educational outcomes and aim at:
▪
Enhancing equal representation of boys and girls in education and removing gender based stereotypes;▪
Combating of gender-based harassment in compulsory education; and▪
Counteracting gender-based attainment rates.Looking at the issue of the enhancement of representation of boys and girls in education and the removal of traditional gender-based stereotypes, relevant initiatives exist in most countries. As discussed in Section 4.4.1 below, key initiatives in this area include projects that seek to:
▪
Make the learning experience attractive and accessible;▪
Create role models and mentors;▪
Help male and female students to access companies;▪
Provide career guidance; and▪
Raise awareness of gender issues.These activities are also supplemented by research studies that give a better understanding of the problems in this field.
Regarding initiatives to combat gender-based attainment patterns, Section 4.4.2 presents key initiatives that directly target pupil and teacher behaviour and seek to eliminate gender-based violence in schools.
Finally, initiatives that seek to combat gender-based attainment patterns work to reduce drop-out rates of male students and encourage more female students to improve underperformance in certain subjects. These are presented in Section 4.4.3.
4.4.1 Initiatives to enhance the equal representation of boys and girls in education
Measures and initiatives to enhance the equal representation of boys and girls in compulsory education have been identified in several EU15 Member States, including Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden and the UK.
The measures identified in Table 4.2 below are broadly categorised as direct interventions or research.
132
Forsthuber, Bernadette, and Motiejunaite, Akvile (2010). “Gender Differences in Educational Outcomes: Study of the Measures Taken and the Current Situation in Europe”, EACEA Eurydice, p. 50.
64 Table 4.2 Thematic overview of example initiatives to enhance the equal representation of boys and
girls in compulsory education
Direct interventions Research
Making the learning experience attractive and accessible Role models and mentors Access to companies and workplaces Professional orientation activities Awareness campaigns Austria Sweden Austria Belgium Denmark Belgium Germany Luxembourg UK
Belgium Luxembourg Belgium Sweden
These themes and the associated initiatives are discussed in turn below. 4.4.1.1 Direct interventions
Direct interventions are aimed at pupils and teachers to enhance the participation of girls or boys in subjects where they are under-represented. While the majority of initiatives focus on girls, a small number provide opportunities to both sexes to explore career and education choices. Several types of activities are identified, and examples are provided below.
Making the learning experience more attractive and accessible
In Austria two initiatives were identified which seek to get pupils to reflect on gender aspects of their course choices. Mut! Mädchen und Technik (Courage! Girls and Technology) was a large national project that looked at reducing gender specific career choices and increasing the number of girls in the sciences. Nine regional „Mut!‟ centres trained interested teachers to get pupils to reflect on gender aspects of their course choices and to advise/highlight the different initiatives on this in the region. Another initiative is the „Lernwerkstatt‟ (learning lab), a local project which provides hands-on practical problem-solving sessions in a laboratory for pupils in grades 7 and 8 (made possible in a full timetable by reducing by half an hour regular science classes). The project offers the opportunity for every pupil to find an interest in the sciences.
In Sweden, over the past 25 years the National Agency for Education (Skolverket) has allocated resources to technology summer courses for girls. The grant, introduced in 1985 has provided to raise girls‟ awareness of technical education.
Providing real-life role models and/or mentors
In Austria, „FIT‟ (Women in Technology) was a large national programme (recently ended) that worked with female professionals from technology companies to encourage the take-up of subjects leading to such occupations amongst girls. It made women in technical occupations visible to girls, provided contacts and showed that lots of technical jobs have changed and involve client contact and communication. Furthermore it informed girls about study options in technical institutes in Austria (either at universities, vocational schools or colleges) and organised taster days and school visits from female professionals working in technology companies.
In Denmark, the Ministry of Education has set up a body of role models to further non-gender specific educational and vocational choice.
Providing access to companies and workplaces
In Belgium, 'Girls‟ days‟ are organised where companies and research institutions invite girls for visits to introduce them to technical jobs and careers which they traditionally do not take into consideration. They are accompanied by mentors who inform them about entry requirements and/or courses of study.
In Germany, the Federal Ministry for Education and Research and the Family Ministry support several measures aimed at increasing the enthusiasm of girls and boys for non-gender typical courses and career paths. One example is Girls‟ Day for girls in grade 5 and above and new for 2011 Boys‟ Days. Girls visit for the day companies and laboratories to get a taste of
65 Day is the biggest professional orientation project for pupils in Germany. It started in 2001 and in 2010 over 9,600 companies opened their doors for the day to over 122,000 girls.133
Similarly, in Luxembourg, „Girls‟ days‟ (but also „Boys‟ days‟) are annual events organised to help pupils learn about different career options. For instance, girls spend one day in a company to discover technical/scientific jobs, while boys visit hospitals and care centres, schools, etc. This activity was originally initiated and organised by a NGO (Centre d'Information et de documentation
des Femmes, a member of the network Conseil National des Femmes du Luxembourg) and was
supported financially by the national Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Education now delivers this activity.
In the United Kingdom, Joint Investment (JIVE) is an ESF funded project which aims to create cultural change in engineering, construction and technology (i.e. traditionally male-dominated sectors) by addressing the barriers that prevent women from pursuing careers in these sectors. The initiative is led by the UK Resource Centre for Women in Science, Engineering and
Technology at Bradford College. The activities consist of work experience opportunities for female students in traditionally male-dominated industries and private sector companies; taster days in schools aimed at girls. The activities aim to encourage the take-up of courses such as Design and Technology General Certificates of Secondary Education (GCSE).
Professional orientation activities
A number of activities have been identified in Belgium including the following examples:
▪
The website „Mon metier, mon avenir‟ (My Occupation, My Future) targets girls and boys. The website provides information on the organisation of schools, secondary and higher education. The website also offers an introduction to multiple occupations through videos of interviews with professionals, descriptions of typical tasks for each sector of economic activity. Projects to enhance a more gender sensitive study orientation are regularly undertaken.▪
The Flemish Ministry of Education publishes a monthly magazine and a digital newsletter (Klasse voor ouders) and hosts a website for parents. These media channels frequently bring gender issues to parents‟ attention.Awareness campaigns
In Luxembourg, the National Action Plan for equality between women and men, 2009-2014 includes education as a priority area. One of the key activities is the awareness raising campaigns aimed at teachers and young boys/girls.
4.4.1.2 Research
Research is being conducted on deepening the understanding of the causes behind the unequal representation of boys and girls in education, for example in Belgium. In Sweden, studies have been undertaken to investigate how women and men are represented in textbooks in history and social studies.
4.4.1.3 Enhancing equal representation: summary
This brief overview shows a rich variety of approaches, measures and initiatives aimed at
enhancing the equal representation of boys and girls in compulsory education. All of the examples identified are from EU15 Member States. The measures identified focus mostly on increasing the participation of girls in the education areas and subjects where they are under-represented – maths, sciences, IT and/or technical/vocational training subjects. The measures indicate that there is a commitment to equal participation and demonstrates that actions are taken to address the problem of existing unequal access and participation in certain subjects across the curriculum. 4.4.2 Initiatives to combat gender-based harassment in compulsory education
Initiatives to combat gender-based harassment in compulsory education have been identified to date, in several Member States (AT, BE, DE, ES, LT, PL, RO, SE and UK). An overview of the initiatives identified is provided in Table 4.3 below.
133
66 Table 4.3 Thematic overview of initiatives to combat gender-based harassment in compulsory
education
‘Project type’ initiatives Initiatives to embed equality of opportunity
into the practices of education institutions Measures to directly
target pupil and teacher behaviour General anti- bullying Campaigns Research School inspectorate activities School strategy initiatives External support structures (centres of advice, written guidance) Poland
Austria (gender neutral) Romania(gender neutral) Germany Lithuania Sweden Lithuania Belgium (FL) Belgium (FL) UK Belgium Spain UK The project type initiatives focus on awareness raising, engaging with students whereas the initiatives to embed anti-harassment provide frameworks in which institutional measures and practices are implemented. Descriptions of the various types of initiatives are provided below. 4.4.2.1 „Project type‟ initiatives
Project type initiatives introduced to combat gender-based harassment in schools are often implemented at the local/regional level, for a specific period of time. One of the examples identified from Poland specifically focuses on gender-based harassment.
The Polish project 'Girls and Boys: With No Fear, No Prejudice, No Violence' aims to provide students with knowledge on triggers associated with harassment. It was implemented in lower secondary and upper secondary lyceum-type schools. The main outcome was a set of scenarios developed for use during equality lessons that cover issues such as conflicts, managing difficult emotions, communication, stereotypes and peer violence.
Other examples of initiatives focus on equality in general terms and are delivered through a variety of mechanisms: publicity campaigns; research; or targeted training for pupils, teachers and other school personnel.
▪
Austria: a local level project was initiated „peer supporters‟: pupils trained to act as mediators.This approach aims to reduce violence in schools through mediation. This initiative may cover gender based harassment; however, it is not exclusively focussed on this issue.
▪
Romania: between November and December 2009, the National Council for CombatingDiscrimination completed the third edition of the project „We are equal! Let‟s be friends‟, designed for pupils aged between 8 and 19 years studying in primary and secondary education in Bucharest. This interdisciplinary project aimed at raising awareness about discrimination through employing various methods based on the principles of interactivity, active participation (of pupils in debates) and the use of modern teaching methods. Pupils were given the option to participate in a literary contest which sought to inform them about human rights and especially the right to non-discrimination and the principle of equality of opportunity.
▪
Romania: the National Council for Combating Discrimination has been delivering courses toeducators, teachers, professors, school mediators and school inspectors involved in compulsory education. The courses were aimed at familiarising staff within the Romanian education system with non-discrimination principles, good practices concerning diversity and to inform them on the legal provisions in this domain.
In several other countries (e.g. DE and LT), there have been general anti-bullying and harassment campaigns targeted at the education system, which may cover gender based harassment: Research has been undertaken in Lithuania on the subject of tolerance towards different social groups amongst children aged 3-12, which includes children of compulsory schooling age, and on possible instances of discrimination in schools.
67 In Sweden, the National Agency for School Improvement was commissioned by the Government to compile an inventory of research-based methods and measures against bullying. Based on this review, the agency developed an educational initiative directed at municipalities and schools. The Government has invested approximately EUR 1 million per annum up to 2010 to identify and disseminate preventative measures against mobbing (i.e. a form of bullying by a large group of people).
4.4.2.2 Initiatives to embed equality of opportunity in education into the working practices of the education providers and education systems
Examples of initiatives that aim to embed equality of opportunity in education into the working practices of the education providers and education systems are identified below. These include support to school staff; initiatives that update methods of instruction; curriculum development; self and external evaluation and other support structures. In general the examples provided below concern equality of opportunity in general terms hence in a number of cases are gender neutral. However, three examples from Belgium and the UK concern gender equality activities for school inspectors; plans for preventing and combating violence, harassment and unwanted sexual behaviour at school; and guidance for schools on preventing and responding to sexist, sexual and transphobic bullying respectively.
Examples of ‘School inspectorate activities’
In the Belgian Flemish Community, schools are responsible for developing a gender equality policy, although the government can facilitate this process. The school inspectorate monitors the implementation of the cross-curricular objectives, including gender equality, in schools and assesses whether schools are responding effectively. The inspectorate also runs half-day training course on discrimination for schools inspectors.
Similarly, in Sweden, the Office of the Child and School Student Representative (BEO) is a part of the Swedish Schools Inspectorate, although it operates independently. Together with the Schools Inspectorate, BEO supervises the area of school legislation concerning abusive behaviour. It also works together with the Discrimination Ombudsman to combat abuse, discrimination and
harassment of children and pupils. One important responsibility for BEO is safeguarding the rights of children and pupils. This means that BEO investigates complaints about offensive treatment and can represent individual children and pupils in a court of law.
Examples of ‘School strategy initiatives’
In the Flemish Community of Belgium, the non-profit organisation 'Limits' and the Ministry of Education and Training developed a policy plan for preventing and combating violence, harassment and unwanted sexual behaviour at school.
In the United Kingdom, guidance for schools is available on preventing and responding to sexist, sexual and transphobic bullying. The guidance covers gaining an understanding of the type and extent of the bullying going on in the school; developing practices and activities which seek to prevent the bullying from happening; training for staff; curriculum design so sexist, sexual and transphobic bullying are addressed; monitoring cases of bullying so that the success of activities can be measured.
Examples of ‘External support structures’
The not for profit organisation ‟Limits‟ in Belgium co-ordinates the Expert Centre on Antisocial Behaviour at School (Steunpunt Ongewenst Gedrag op School). Actors involved in the delivery of education can use this Centre for information and advice on various forms of unwanted behaviour in schools. The Centre also houses the complaints office for education staff who are confronted with antisocial behaviour. The Expert Centre offers a mediation service. In February 2009, a gender neutral publication was released to support schools in combating antisocial behaviour. It is based on the project „Violence in Schools: Training and Action (VISTA), a scientifically grounded training programme, with which schools can map and improve their own policy regarding antisocial behaviour.
In Spain, within the National Plan for the improvement of the school environment („convivencia
escolar‟), a number of activities to establish support structures have been implemented. The aim of
68 conflict management. The National Observatory of „convivencia escolar‟ created in 2007134
to provide a platform for exchange of experiences between partners has elaborated best practice guides, and developed agreements with parent and student associations.
4.4.2.3 Gender based harassment: summary
This initial overview of measures identified to embed equality of opportunity in education into the working practices of the education providers and education systems to date provides an overview of local and regional level projects and initiatives concerning the education system and its delivery.. While there are a small number of examples that specifically address gender based harassment in schools, most measures to tackling gender-specific harassment tend to be implemented in a wider framework of measures linked to the principles of equality of opportunity in that they address bullying, discrimination, intolerance, mobbing at schools and promote the values of equality,
tolerance, diversity and non-discrimination in the working practices and environment of the schools. 4.4.3 Initiatives to target gender-based attainment patterns in compulsory education
Measures and initiatives to target gender-based attainment patterns in education are numerous and have been subject to a number of recent comprehensive studies. Therefore, the focus here was to identify measures targeting gender-based attainment patterns in education, where there is a clear link with the issues of equal access to education for boys and girls.
Measures have been identified in several Member States, including Austria, Belgium, Germany, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Sweden and the UK.
The measures identified can be broadly grouped into the three categories identified in Table 4.4:
▪
Initiatives targeting the achievement gap;▪
Initiatives targeting teacher education; and▪
Initiatives focusing on boys‟ underachievement.Table 4.4 Thematic overview of example initiatives to target gender-based attainment patterns in education
Targeting the achievement gap in specific subjects Improving teacher education Focusing on boys’ underachievement Austria Belgium Germany UK Belgium Lithuania Poland Romania Belgium Denmark Sweden UK These initiatives are described below.
4.4.3.1 Targeting the achievement gap in specific studies
Initiatives targeting the achievement gap typically concern measures related to girls‟ under- achieving in science and mathematics, whereas earlier measures discussed in section 4.4.1 facilitated access to these subjects.
In Austria, the project „Innovations make schools top‟ aims at reducing the gender gap in maths and natural sciences.
In Belgium, the Unité d‟analyse des Systèmes et des Pratiques d‟enseignement (aSPe) of the