not that of Isaiah. In 1 Samuel 9:9 we read: “He that is now called a prophet was before-time called a seer.” Samuel was the first to be called a prophet in an official capacity since the time of Moses. Thus, with Joshua/Judges located within the Prophets’
Division (and at the very start of it), it is highly probable that Samuel was the author of the single Book of Joshua/Judges (the Pre-Kingdom book for Israel). Recall that it was Samuel who first established the schools of the prophets throughout Israel — at Ramah, Bethel, Jericho, and Gilgal (1 Samuel 10:5, 10; 19:20; 2 Kings 2:3, 5; 4:38). This means that there were no men called “prophets” before Samuel.
On the other hand, Isaiah could very well have been the author of the book which followed Joshua/Judges (i.e., the Book of Kingdoms) as Fenton suggests. 12 Several commentators, and among them the early Old Testament scholar Moses Stuart (the great American scholar of the early 19th century), feel that this reference to Isaiah in 2 Chronicles 32:32 certainly relates to the writing of our present Book of Kingdoms. 13 Observe also that in the Book of Chronicles Ezra speaks of the fact that Isaiah had written “the rest of the acts of Uzziah”
(2 Chronicles 26:22). The only place, apart from Chronicles, in which the events of Uzziah’s life are recorded, is in the Book of Kingdoms. This implies that Isaiah was the author of that book. Also note that 2 Kings 18–20 is identical with Isaiah 36–39, which again shows common authorship.
Author of the Book of Kingdoms
But what about the part of the Book of Kingdoms that records events after the time of Isaiah? This should give little problem. It was perfectly possible for later canonizers to bring the book up to date. The Talmud says that Jeremiah wrote the Book of Kings, 14 but this could mean that Jeremiah was the one who finished the book. The composition of the main body of the work, however, as stated in the Bible itself, seems to be Isaiah’s.
Why did Isaiah write the Book of Kingdoms? There was a good reason for it. As Fenton said, the historical books preceding Isaiah are a perfectly good introduction to Isaiah’s prophecies. In the original order of the Old Testament, the Book of Kingdoms immediately precedes that of the prophet Isaiah. Would it not be natural for Isaiah to present a
continuous history of Israel’s obedience and their later rebellions and punishments before relating his prophecies of what would happen to them should they continue following in the footsteps of their forefathers?
If this solution by Ferrar Fenton is the true one, as seems most likely, the position of the Book of Isaiah following the Book of Kingdoms, as in the canonical order of the Old
Testament, makes good sense and gives a reason for Isaiah writing the Book of Kingdoms.
This would help confirm Isaiah, along with Hezekiah, as one of the great canonizers of Scripture.
The Period of King Josiah
The time of King Josiah in the history of canonization is almost as significant as that of Hezekiah. The ominous conditions that prevailed with Hezekiah were again extant in Josiah’s day. Only the actors had changed. Instead of the Assyrians threatening the existence of Judah, this time it was the Babylonians. And instead of Ahaz’s evil, which blanketed Judaic society prior to the reign of Hezekiah, this time it was that of Manasseh and Amon. In
some ways, the latter apostasy of Manasseh exceeded that of Ahaz.
“So Manasseh made Judah and Jerusalem to err, and to do worse than the heathen, whom the Lord had destroyed before the children of Israel.”
2 Chronicles 33:9 The re-introduction of Gentile paganism during the long reign of Manasseh was
accomplished at the expense of Mosaic religion. The Temple services, carefully reinstituted by Hezekiah and Isaiah, again were neglected, and finally ceased altogether. Manasseh (like Ahaz before him) stripped the Temple of its furniture. Even blocks of masonry and ceiling rafters were removed and used in other buildings until the Temple structure itself became practically an empty hulk (2 Chronicles 34:8–11).
The Book of Chronicles shows that the religious condition of Judah during Manasseh’s reign was near the low point, but with the two-year rule of his son, Amon, the situation even worsened. “Amon trespassed more and more” (2 Chronicles 33:21–23). However, Amon was finally murdered by his own servants (2 Chronicles 33:24–25). At this point, Josiah, a mere child, was thrust onto the stage of history.
Josiah was one of the most remarkable men of the Old Testament. In his short life, the Bible states he maintained extraordinary character, even though his father and grandfather had been two of the most evil kings that the house of David ever produced. Despite the religious depravity of the environment into which he was born, Josiah displayed a
righteousness rivaling that of David and Hezekiah. In fact, the Bible says he even excelled those kings.
“And like unto him [Josiah] was there no king before him, that turned to the Lord with all his heart, and with all his soul, and with all his might, according to all the Law of Moses; neither after him arose there any like him.”
2 Kings 23:25 Long previously, in the reign of Rehoboam, a prophecy had been uttered about a certain Josiah who would destroy the heathen altars in the land of Israel (1 Kings 13:1–3). That Josiah had now arrived.
The Re-Establishment of Temple Services
Josiah ascended to the throne at eight years of age. When he was twenty he began to:
“purge Judah and Jerusalem from the high places, and the groves, and the carved images, and the molten images.”
2 Chronicles 34:3 Six years later, having cleansed the land of idolatry, he ordered that the Temple (which lay practically in ruins) be completely repaired and restored to its former splendor. He also ordained that all the priestly functions be reinstated. Josiah renovated the whole religious environment in the land of Judah. It seemed to be a time of renewal like that of Hezekiah.
Then, a significant event took place. While the Holy Place of the Temple was being repaired, Hilkiah, the High Priest and the father of Jeremiah came upon the neglected scroll of the Law (the standard copy placed in the sleeves of the Ark). Recognizing the importance of his find, Hilkiah had this archetype copy taken to King Josiah.
After thoroughly reading it for several days and noticing especially the curse-warnings within the Law, Josiah rent his clothes in repentance for himself and for the people of Judah. He discovered that even in his reformation he had not been accomplishing things in the precise manner required by the Law (2 Chronicles 34:19). Endeavoring to do his best was not good enough for Josiah. He wanted to perform all the religious duties as prescribed by Moses.
In the Law, which he had been reading, were statements that if the people forsook God and his Law, then God would forsake them and send them into captivity. Josiah was terror-stricken when the impact of these warnings became clear to him. He saw immediately that
time was running out for Judah. With the new-found Law in his midst, he pursued his reforming policies with even greater diligence. His zeal gained for him a promise from God that there would be peace in Judah for the remainder of his life.
“Because your heart was tender, and you did humble yourself before God, when you heard his words against this place, and against the inhabitants thereof, and humble yourself before me, and did rend your clothes, and weep before me: I have even heard you also, says the Lord.
Behold, I will gather you to your fathers, and you shall be gathered to your grave in peace, neither shall your eyes see all the evil that I will bring upon this place, and upon the inhabitants of the same.”
2 Chronicles 34:27–28 These words constituted a promise of peace and safety for Judah during the lifetime of Josiah. Those who shared Josiah’s enthusiasm for reform received these promises with great joy. With Josiah being only twenty-six years old, they fully expected the curses of
Deuteronomy 2$ to be delayed at least forty or fifty years.
Josiah Dies in Battle
Even though the rumblings of the Babylonian armies were already being heard in the north, the people of Jerusalem felt those armies would not approach them as long as King Josiah lived. But, the promise depended on Josiah being prudent about his own safety.
A few years later, Josiah ventured north to confront the Egyptians and the Babylonians at the place that later became known as Armageddon. Within days, shock seized the Jews.
They received news from a messenger that Josiah had sustained a severe wound from a chance arrow. But they were paralyzed with horror when the next messenger reported that Josiah had died at the youthful age of thirty-nine. The prospect for two or three more decades of God’s protection, in which the God-fearing Jews had taken comfort, vanished overnight. Since Josiah was dead, nothing lay ahead for the Jews but certain drought, plague, invasion and captivity.
Protection for Judah Ceases
All hopes for the peace of Jerusalem appeared lost. The evils of Deuteronomy 28 were then expected to occur. Not only had an excellent king been taken from them, but his death also meant the prophesied captivity upon the Jewish nation could then occur. Thus, “all Judah and Jerusalem mourned for Josiah” (2 Chronicles 35:24). It is no coincidence that from this time forward Jeremiah began his series of prophecies about the imminent captivity of Judah. Even at the critical moment of Josiah’s death, Jeremiah composed an important work about the significance of that event.
“And Jeremiah lamented for Josiah: and all the singing men and the singing women spoke of Josiah in their lamentations to this day, and made them an ordinance in Israel: and, behold [said the author of Chronicles], they are written in the lamentations.”
2 Chronicles 35:25 This is a remarkable reference to the writing of an Old Testament book: the Book of Lamentations. It was a prophetical song, to be sung in the minor or mournful key. The composition was written to commemorate the slaying of Josiah, and it carried with it a prophecy of the destruction of the Temple, Jerusalem and Judaic society. Jeremiah even referred to the death of Josiah in the Book of Lamentations. “The breath of our nostrils, the anointed of the Lord [Josiah], was taken in their pits, of whom we said, under his shadow we shall live among the heathen” (Lamentations 4:20).
Jewish history since the time of Ezra mentioned that this Book of Lamentations was commissioned to be sung in the Temple as an “ordinance” for all the Jewish people. 15 It was ordained that Lamentations was to be sung each year on the eve of the 10th day of the month Ab, the anniversary of the burning of the Temple by Nebuchadnezzar. Even now, Jews read this composition of Jeremiah annually in commemoration of that destruction.
There is another writing of Jeremiah written in mindfulness of Josiah’s death. This was Psalm 89. The latter part of the psalm speaks about a great calamity that had occurred to
Judah. An anointed person had been cast off (Psalm 89:38). His crown had been destroyed (verses 39, 44) and the covenant of protection given to David and his descendants seemed to be broken (verse 39). The king had recently been killed in battle (verse 43) and while he was only a youth (verse 45). The enemies of Judah were now in much rejoicing (verses 41–
42, 51) and the strongholds of the country were expected to be broken down (verse 40).
This lament is found at the end of Psalm 89 and it describes the historical situation that existed in Judah at the death of King Josiah. Indeed, the previous eighteen psalms
(comprising the “Asaph Division” — the third section — of the Psalms) had as their general theme the destruction of the land of Israel, Jerusalem and the Temple. It appears that Jeremiah wrote Psalm 89 to conclude the “Asaph Division” to the Book of Psalms. 16
The final touches of the canonization, which started in the time of King Josiah, took place in Babylon after the Jews had been taken captive. Jeremiah had first gone to Egypt, but he returned to be with the Jews in Babylon (because he recorded events which happened in Babylon some 26 years after the final captivity — Jeremiah 52:31–34). Jeremiah was then able to hand over to Daniel, the Jewish prince in Babylon, any remaining prophecies which he had written (or other documents which he may have rescued from the Temple). Thus, the canonization, which began in the time of King Josiah, ended with the final activities of Jeremiah in Babylon. 17
Daniel and the Sacred Writings
After Jeremiah’s departure from the scene, Jerusalem and Judah continued in a desolate state for many years while the Jews remained in Babylon. But the preservation of the various books was not left, during this period of captivity, to unauthorized members of the Jewish community. We read that Daniel (who was of royal stock, “of the king’s seed, and of the princes,” Daniel 1:3) had been given a high literary position in Babylon.
“[Daniel] was well favored, and skillful in all wisdom, and cunning in knowledge, and understanding science, and such as had ability in them to stand in the king’s palace, and whom they might teach the learning and the tongue of the Chaldeans.”
Daniel 1:4 Lange’s Commentary amplifies the meaning of this verse. Daniel’s “learning” was “all literary knowledge.” The phrase “skillful [cunning] in knowledge” signifies that he was adept in “various fields of knowledge as contained in books.” Daniel was one who had
“acquaintance with literature.” 18
In effect, Daniel was chosen to be one of the librarians (later the chief librarian) in the court of Nebuchadnezzar at Babylon. The nature of Daniel’s work brought him into contact with all types of literature that existed at the time. This included works that had been rescued from the Temple at Jerusalem. He was familiar with:
“the Law of Moses” (Daniel 9:11);
the prophecies of “Jeremiah the Prophet” (Daniel 9:2);
the prophetic “books” of Israel (Daniel 9:2) and
certain other prophetic “books” which contained judgments upon the nations (Daniel 7:10).
There was also a work called “The Scripture of Truth” (Daniel 10:21) which became a part of Daniel’s own book and is recorded for us from Daniel 11:2 to 12:4.
This latter prophecy is the most detailed prediction found anywhere in the Bible and it contains considerable information about events even future to us.
The Prophet Daniel was a very important link to the story of biblical canonization because he was the responsible person through whom the divine documents of the Temple were preserved at Babylon. This enabled those official documents to be returned to Jerusalem by Ezra in later years.
Ezra’s Final Canonization
We now come to the period of Ezra and the Great Assembly. Although we have previously mentioned some reasons for the final canonization during Ezra’s time, there are other observations to be mentioned which can give us a better understanding of the subject.
One point should never be forgotten: all of the canonizations preceding that of Ezra are only of historical interest to us and they do not involve what books belong in the Old Testament canon for us today. The question of exactly which books represent the complete Old
Testament for us, can only be answered by understanding the canonization of Ezra and those one hundred and twenty priests who comprised the Great Assembly. It is Ezra’s final work which is most important to us and to later Judaism.
The reason for this should be apparent. While we can know when and by whom many of the books or portions of books were written, there are other books of the Old Testament about which we are uncertain. What about the books by Hosea, Joel, Job, Amos, other parts of the Psalms or Proverbs? Until the time of Ezra, we have no certain knowledge of how and when they were reckoned as canonical, or if they ever were in early times.
Furthermore, though various suggestions as to which books David, Solomon, Hezekiah, etc., saw fit to canonize have been made in previous pages of this book, this was mainly
possible because of hints given in Ezra’s Book of Chronicles, it was Ezra (the “Second Moses”) who gave to the Jewish world the official (and final) Old Testament to be read in the Temple and synagogues. This makes the canonization by Ezra the most important of all.
Ezra Edits the Whole Old Testament
There is a most important aspect of the Old Testament’s final canonization. This concerns certain editing in the Bible for which Ezra was responsible. At first it might seem almost irreverent to suggest that editing the Bible could be permissible to anyone, regardless of how important his office. Some might say: “Leave the Bible alone; don’t touch a single letter of it.” This may appear proper to us today, but Ezra felt that the Old Testament needed editing to allow the Jewish nation of his time to have the complete and full revelation of God in the Hebrew language.
Ezra’s additions were not vast changes in the text of the Old Testament. He simply made small edits, mostly in earlier portions of the Law. His editorial comments were principally restricted (among other things) to simple parenthetical expressions explaining to the Jews of his time the contemporary geographical names of ancient places and towns that had been changed over the years.
Reference to a good biblical handbook will give the majority of these editorial remarks. One can be found in Genesis 36:31–39 which records the names of Edomite kings down to the time of King Saul. Moses could not have written this section because he would hardly have known the names of Edomite kings living three hundred years after his death. Such
indications as Judges 18:30, which records events seven hundred years after the period of the Judges, is a further example of editing.
Ezra simply went through the early books of the Old Testament and brought them, in some important sections, to a contemporary relevance with accurate geographical or historical facts pertinent to his own time. Moses did the same thing when he originally wrote the Law.
He adopted the principle of bringing earlier historical documents of his time up-to-date.
Even Moses introduced into the ancient records geographical terms familiar to Israelites of his time (Genesis 2:14). This procedure adopted by Moses also prompted Ezra to do the same.
The prophet Samuel did a similar type of editing in his day. This occurred when the people demanded a king. “Then Samuel told the people the manner of the Kingdom, and wrote it in the book and laid it up before the Lord” (1 Samuel 10:25). Samuel wrote “in
The prophet Samuel did a similar type of editing in his day. This occurred when the people demanded a king. “Then Samuel told the people the manner of the Kingdom, and wrote it in the book and laid it up before the Lord” (1 Samuel 10:25). Samuel wrote “in