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There is a wide spectrum of involvement methods that can be used during the ecotourism development planning process, ranging from informing and educating to innovative methods for interaction and decision-making. Selecting the most appropriate techniques for engagement at each stage is crucial for a more pro-active exchange of information and views, which should then lead to better-harmonised outcomes (Marien & Pizam 1997). Using inappropriate techniques not only leads to poor outcomes but may, in some circumstances, obstruct the initiative as a whole (Cascettaa & Pagliaraa 2013). There is no single method that can cover all collaborative planning requirements, and consideration of the variation in stakeholder knowledge and background about the issues (Araujo 2000) needs to be taken into account when choosing the most appropriate approach (Taschner & Fiedler 2009). Three types of benefit from using proper and varied methods for deliberation during the collaborative activities have been identified: i) substantive effects, which include more acceptable decision outcomes from the technical, environmental, economic and social points of view; ii) procedural effects, which include better management of the conflicts, using the information and increasing the legitimacy of the plan-making process; and iii) contextual effects, which include better information exchange, increasing the trust in the institutional stakeholders, and strengthening the democratic practices (OECD 2004). To achieve all these benefits the methods of involvement should be both varied and appropriate during every stage of the process. So this section discusses the types of engagement method, the main criteria used to choose the proper methods and, finally, some consideration of the most effective engagement methods to be used during a collaborative planning process.

Categories of engagement methods: To choose the appropriate method for each planning stage, the different categories of methods need to be identified. From the literature review it can be emphasised that the methods that assist in ecotourism planning can be placed into two main groups (Table 3-2). The first group includes administrative-oriented methods that aim to increase the likelihood of the stakeholder cooperation with official organisations through exchange of information, education and support-building techniques. These methods meet the government needs of

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stakeholder participation within ecotourism development. The most widely used administration-oriented methods are information exchange (giving and gathering) and interactive engagement. The second group are stakeholder-oriented methods, which provide stakeholders with the power to influence decision-making and increase the government’s response to stakeholder views, values and inputs. These methods provide more for a direct involvement of the stakeholders, recognising their needs taking an active part within the ecotourism planning process. Within this group a further two sub-groups can be identified: decision-making supplements and representational input. The convener needs to strike a balance between administrative- and stakeholder-oriented techniques to increase the effectiveness of stakeholder participation (Araujo 2000; Marien & Pizam 1997).

Choosing the proper engagement methods: Due to the uniqueness of each ecotourism development planning issue, the involvement techniques and strategies used should also be individually tailored to the project. Therefore, generic criteria to help the conveners design involvement programmes can be suggested (Marien & Pizam 1997; OECD 2004):

-The purpose of the engagement: The convener and planning team should focus initially on defining what exactly they want to achieve by engaging with stakeholders. They should also think about the expected results from the engagement activities, which will help to select the best techniques for realising these expectations (Kelly et al. 2004).

-The level of involvement: Each level of participation requires a specific level of information exchange and interaction between the stakeholders (informing, consultation or active involvement). For instance, the powerful techniques to engage selected groups – such as focus groups which provide each stakeholder with enough room to speak and discuss issues – are not suitable for the consultation process, which offers the stakeholder limited options and may require engagement with large groups of stakeholders to build external support for the plan (Wilcox 2004).

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Table (3-2) Categorising the methods12 of stakeholder involvement in collaborative ecotourism planning

Administrative-orientated methods Stakeholder-oriented methods

Inf or mation exc h ange (giving a nd ga ther ing)

a) Printed public information materials

i) Letters; ii) Posters, notices and signs; iii) Leaflet and brochure; iv) Fact sheet; v) Newsletter; and vi) technical report

b) Telephone and Broadcasting i) Telephone techniques; and ii) Local radio and television shows c) Surveying individuals

i) Questionnaire surveys; and ii) Key person interviews

d) Internet

i) Internet techniques; and ii) Web-based forums

Inte ra cti ve e nga g ement a) Information events

i) Exhibition; ii) Information centre (Drop-in centres); iii) Information session and briefing; and iv) Public hearing/meetings;

b) Engaging selected stakeholder groups

i) Community visits and study tours; ii) Focus group; iii) Workshop; and iv) Technical working party c) Engaging large groups

i) Stakeholder conference; ii) Visioning event; iii) Weekend event; iv) Planning for Real; and v) Open space event

d) Education and support building

i) Advisory groups and task forces; ii) Technical and professional advice; iii) Workshops and seminars; v) Expert panels; and vi) Formal and professional training

a) Decision-making supplements

- Direct confrontation - Litigation

- Role playing and game playing b) Representational input i) Active process

- Votes, referendums and plebiscites

- Partnership - Delegated power - Stakeholder control ii) Passive process

- Nominal group technique (NGT)

- Delphi process - Citizen juries - Planning charrettes

Source: The author based on Araujo (2000), Kelly et al. (2004), and Marien and Pizam (1997)

-Who is being engaged: Stakeholder knowledge and background about the issues as well as their capacity and level of literacy are important factors to

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The methods in this research cover three main headings: i) techniques that have frequently been used in short- term involvement employed by planners or conveners. These techniques range from simple communication materials and sessions to more complex methods of decision-making; ii) structures including interim or longer- term organisational structures used during collaborative processes. They range from technical and advisory committees to partnership organisations; and iii) longer-term programmes or strategies that involve stakeholders devoted partly or wholly to the programme as well as using techniques and structures (Wilcox 2004).

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consider in selecting the proper techniques to engage different stakeholders. Therefore, the results of the stakeholder analysis (undertaken during building the network stage) needs to be translated to a sequence of concrete inputs in selecting appropriate techniques at each stage of the process (Margerum 2011). - The scope of previous participation programmes in that locality:

Understanding and analysing the previous participation attempts will help to identify the barriers and opportunities in order to maximise the benefits of the new programme and choose the most appropriate techniques based on these experiences (Marien & Pizam 1997).

-Available time frame: The time frame for making a plan is an important ingredient in choosing appropriate engagement methods. Each technique needs a different time for preparing, inviting the target stakeholders and analysing the results (Kelly et al. 2004).

-Resource availability: Choosing the technique also depends on the financial resources and skills of those involved. For example, the techniques during the consultation stages require experienced facilitators compared with an informing stage. Also, techniques to engage with large groups of stakeholders need more financial resources compared with engaging smaller, selected groups.

-The statutory requirement: The conveners should consider any statutory requirements in selecting the engagement techniques. For example, the required time to report on the progress of the process to the stakeholders (Drafting Group 2002).

General matrix of the proper involvement methods for collaborative phases:

By combing both administrative and stakeholder-oriented methods it is possible to create a general matrix of different types of engagement strategy for different stages in the process (see Table 3-3).

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Table (3-3) Categorising the techniques according to the collaborative phases

Phase of collaborative planning Administrative-orientated methods Stakeholder-oriented

methods Probl em se tt ing

Defining the problem scope and purpose

Printed public information materials Telephone and broadcasting

Internet Information events B ui ld ing st akeho lde rs’ net w or k Identify the stakeholders

Public meeting to map out the communities

Interview with key informants Focus group to establish the stakeholder list

Analyse the stakeholders

Interview and survey to gather the stakeholders’ characteristics then focus group/workshop to analyse the stakeholders

Delphi method

Diagnostic of the current situation

Public meeting then selected groups’ techniques Nominal group technical/Delphi method D ir ec ti on s et ti

ng Develop plan options Techniques used to involve selected _groups

Partnership/nominal group technical Public consultation on draft

development plan

Techniques used to involve large groups

Referendum/voting

Reaching shared plan Techniques used to involve selected

groups Citizen juries/planning charrettes Im p le m en ta ti o

n Selecting suitable structure

for institutionalising process

Techniques used to involve selected groups

Planning charrettes/ nominal group

technical Assign goals and tasks to

implement and monitor the agreement

Source: The author based on Cascettaa and Pagliaraa (2013); and Maguire, Potts and Fletcher (2012)

Considerations for facilitating effective engagement meetings: There are five key aspects for preparing and conducting effective participation events. These are combined in the S.T.E.P.S. approach as follows:

-Space: The location of the meeting space and its physical arrangement, including the availability of essential equipment, are significant for setting the mood for the participants and influencing their performance during the meetings.

-Time: Proper scheduling and time management are essential for a successful meeting. This ensures enough time for stakeholders to have their input and allow different agenda items which might be locally important to be discussed.

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Scheduling is important to help the majority of the different stakeholder groups, particularly local communities, participate in the meetings (MDNR 2005).

-Eventfulness: To enhance the stakeholder performance during the meetings, the facilitators should use ice-breaking exercises and humour.

- Product: Good preparation of the meeting in advance through developing understandable information for all different stakeholder groups is important and this might include asking participants about their expectations of the meeting (MDNR 2005). Following up meeting outcomes through sending participants minutes to review before the next steps will be also crucial in taking the agenda forward (Drafting Group 2002).

-Style of the facilitators and their roles can strongly influence the outcomes of the process. Experienced facilitators adapt their style according to the nature of the issues and the type of participants. They use their expertise to ensure the group functions in a logical and transparent manner, accepting and respecting different stakeholders in order to try to build a consensus between them. They often try to break the large meetings into small groups to enrich the discussion and allow all the participants to have their say (OESU 2001).

Synthesis

Choosing the appropriate involvement methods at each stage of the process is important for effective stakeholder participation. The methods need to be varied, and a combination of administrative- and stakeholder-oriented methods to attract the different stakeholder types and enhance their performance during the meetings will be required.

Consequently, this research will examine the appropriateness of various stakeholder engagement methods in Egyptian ecotourism initiatives based around the following questions:

-Which methods of stakeholder involvement have been chosen at each stage of the planning process? Were they appropriate or not?

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