The sensory characteristics of food such as flavour, texture, appearance and aroma are considered important in consumer acceptance of a product and play an important role in food selection (Brown, 2015). Various recent studies have highlighted the importance of sensory characteristics of food to consumers. Mascarello, Pinto, Parise, Crovato and Ravarotto (2015) found that Italian consumers find the pleasure of eating important and, therefore, consider the sensory characteristics of food, in particular taste, appearance and freshness to be key aspects in food choice. Rekhy and McConchie (2014) established that taste, texture, smell and colour play a key role in the consumption of fruit and vegetables, while Falguera, Aliguer and Falguera (2012) believe taste to be the most important attribute to consumers.
48 The sensory characteristics of food are often more important in food selection than other criteria (Brown, 2015). Flavour and texture, including tenderness and juiciness, are considered key indicators of meat quality to consumers (Hoffman et al., 2009a) and were also considered important in meat derived from wildlife such as bison Bison bison and elk Cervus canadensis (Steiner et al., 2006). Radder (2002) stated that consumers dislike the taste of venison. However, poor harvesting and handling methods of venison, especially adrenaline discharged by stressed animals, are considered the main causes of a wild, gamey, or unappetizing taste and tough texture in venison (Radder & Le Roux, 2005). Therefore, consumers might find the taste and texture of game meat acceptable, if animals are harvested without unnecessary stress and the meat handled correctly. The appearance of a product is regarded as an important quality cue to consumers, since it is often the only visible sensory characteristic of the meat whereby they can judge the perceived wholesomeness of the meat (Leick et al., 2011; Manchini & Hunt, 2005; Resureccion, 2003). Meat colour is often used by consumers as an indicator of freshness (Manchini & Hunt, 2005). Radder and Le Roux (2005) found that although appearance and texture of red meat are considered important by consumers, aroma was also often used to judge the quality of meat (Radder & Le Roux, 2005). Since consumers’ attitudes toward the sensory characteristics of a product are often based on their experience of the product itself, respondents in the non-consumer category could have based their responses either on past experiences and decided not to consume game meat anymore, or on their perceptions and expectations of what they believe regarding the sensory characteristics of game meat without personal experience of the product.
3.3.4.2 Health Benefits
Health benefits was selected as one of the attributes to be studied in this research as a result of the widely held belief that consumers worldwide are becoming more concerned with the healthy eating and consequently increasingly tend toward leaner meat (Cloete, 2015). In a Canadian study (Steiner et al., 2006), it was found that health benefits, such as the low fat and low cholesterol content, of bison meat were considered important by consumers and influenced their choice to consume bison positively. Research is not available to describe South African consumers’ current attitudes towards the health benefits of game meat and how it relates to their choice to consume game meat. It was necessary to determine whether South Africans also displayed the trend of selecting leaner meat and whether it was considered important to the extent that it would play a role in their actual choice of meat products. In 2005, Hoffman et al. indicated that consumers considered the fat content important when selecting meat, with a preference for lean
49 meat. However, in the same year Radder and Le Roux (2005) stated that South African consumers displayed a high preference for red meat, but a low preference for venison, despite the high incidence of coronary diseases in the population. They attributed this trend to either a lack of concern for health implications of meal choices among South Africans, or uncertainty among consumers regarding the nutritional quality of different types of meat (Radder & Le Roux, 2005). Hoffman et al. (2005) indicated that consumers were rather unfamiliar with the health benefits of game meat. Due to the uncertainty regarding the extent to which attitudes toward health benefits of game meat currently contribute to South African consumers’ choice to consume game meat, the health benefits were considered an important attribute to include in this research.
3.3.4.3 Availability
Availability of game meat to consumers was considered an important attribute to include, since various other studies showed its importance in consumer choices. Radder (2003) indicated that year-round availability, at places that are convenient to the consumer, could affect consumer interest in a product. In venison studies done in Canada and Australia, it was found that the lack of availability was the main reason for consumers not to purchase elk and kangaroo meat, while the availability of a variety of cuts was considered important in bison meat (Steiner et al., 2006). Apart from the general availability of the product and whether the available cuts met consumer needs, the seasonality and place of purchase were also found to be important factors to consumers in previous studies (Bekker et al., 2011; Radder & Le Roux, 2005; Radder, 2003). According to Radder (2003), the seasonal availability of game meat has created a negative opinion among consumers in the past.
3.3.4.4 Price
The attitudes toward the price of game meat were included in this research to consider its possible role in the consumption of game meat. The price of meat was found to be important in studies concerning bison and kangaroo (Ampt & Owen, 2008; Steiner et al., 2006). In the case of kangaroo meat (Ampt & Owen, 2008), it was considered slightly more expensive than other red meat, but Australian consumers would still purchase it when they preferred. Yet, they were willing to shop around extensively in order to purchase it at the most affordable price, indicating some price sensitivity among consumers. According to Radder and Grunert (2009), price seemed to play a role in consumers’ decision to consume venison. Hoffman et al. (2005) and Radder (2003) considered venison to be expensive, luxury meat for high income groups and believed
50 that consumers would not be willing to pay a premium for it compared to other types of red meat.
3.3.4.5 Preparation
In 2005, Radder and Le Roux stated that South Africans lack experience and knowledge to prepare venison and that poor preparation could influence the taste of venison negatively, with 55% of their respondents not knowing how to prepare venison. Similarly, Steiner et al. (2006) found the lack of preparation experience of elk among Canadians, was regarded as the main reason hindering its consumption. In the United States, unfamiliarity with the preparation of venison, regarded as exotic meat, was considered a universal problem, leading to low sales (Radder, 2003). Consumers’ uncertainty regarding preparation of kangaroo meat was found to discourage consumers and limit its consumption (Ampt & Owen, 2008). Resureccion (2003) believe that the changing lifestyles of consumers led to an increasing demand in food products, including meat, that are convenient to prepare, requiring less planning and preparation time. Consequently, preparation was considered an important attribute to study.
3.3.4.6 Promotion
Promotion of a product can play a major role in its consumption, since mere exposure to a product is regarded as the simplest way to increase consumer preference for the product (Tom, Nelson, Srzentic & King, 2007). According to South African restaurant managers and chefs’ opinions, unfamiliarity with the product and a lack of promotion were considered the reason for a lack of interest in venison (Radder, 2002). Similarly, Steiner et al. (2006) indicated the lack of promotion of elk to be an important reason limiting its purchase among Canadians. It was considered necessary to determine whether producers of game meat are effectively promoting game meat to consumers and what attitudes are held by consumers regarding these promotional efforts.
3.3.4.7 Food Safety
Food safety has become an important consideration for consumers worldwide. The BSE crisis in the United Kingdom caused consumers to reconsider meat safety seriously and to insist on improved safety control measures, traceability and more information on meat production (Verbeke et al., 2010). Since production standards differ between countries, the origin and reliable traceability are considered important aspects of food safety by consumers (Radder & Le Roux, 2005). In venison products, such as elk (Steiner et al.,
51 2006), consumers indicated that traceability is an important consideration when they purchase elk meat due to safety concerns. Consumers are concerned about zoonotic diseases which could be transmitted to humans through the use of wild animals and concerns regarding potential diseases were considered the fourth most important reason for Canadians not to purchase elk (Bekker et al., 2011; Steiner et al., 2006). The consumption of bison meat also has been negatively affected by this perceived risk among consumers (Nganje et al., 2005). South African respondents, however, showed confidence in local red meat producers and considered red meat from shops to be safe for human consumption (Radder & Le Roux, 2005). Unfortunately, regarding game meat, it has been found in the past that the varying quality of game meat products sold in South Africa by different producers has created an expectation among consumers that game meat is of poor quality (Hoffman et al., 2004). Consumers increasingly seem to prefer meat that is organic (free from growth hormones, antibiotics, and pesticides) and were in some cases willing to pay a premium for those attributes (Ampt & Owen, 2008, Steiner et al., 2006; Radder & Le Roux, 2005). Consumers also indicated a preference for fresh meat, rather than frozen meat, since it is easier to judge the quality visibly on fresh meat (Steiner et al., 2006). Since food safety has become such an important issue in meat products, it was considered an important aspect to include in research on game meat.
3.3.4.8 Animal Welfare
In 2009, Radder and Grunert established that sensory characteristics, convenience and price may influence consumers’ choice of wildlife meat, but they could not determine the role of animal welfare in consumer choice. Verbeke et al. (2010) found that high levels of animal welfare were considered a good indicator of meat safety and high quality by consumers. Internationally and locally, a trend is visible among consumers indicating a preference for meat from animals that were treated humanely throughout the entire production process and requiring some reliable certification for it (Steiner et al., 2006; Radder & Le Roux, 2005), making it an important attribute to consider.
3.3.4.9 Ethical Production Methods
Consumers are increasingly concerned with environmental and ethical concerns regarding meat production and are placing increased pressure on producers to provide meat in a sustainable manner while adhering to socially acceptable environmental practices (Verbeke et al., 2010). Limited research is available on the issue of consumer attitudes and preferences relating to the harvesting of animals from wild or managed
52 populations of indigenous wildlife. However, ethical considerations applicable to meat derived from indigenous wildlife has been explored extensively in the utilisation of kangaroo meat in Australia and provided valuable insights to consider during this study. In the case of kangaroo meat, consumers found the source of meat to be important. Kangaroos are mostly harvested from wild populations; however, more than 70% of consumers believed that the meat originated from well managed farms, or extensive free- range stations (Ampt & Owen, 2008). Consumers displayed serious concern regarding sustainability claims and species conservation upon discovering that kangaroos are wild harvested, rather than specifically bred for meat (Ampt & Owen, 2008). However, kangaroos have long been considered an agricultural pest in Australia and farmers in the past often tried to overcome this by destroying habitat which is favoured by kangaroos to reduce their numbers (Ampt & Baumber, 2006). Better management options had to be found to prevent habitat destruction and reduce agricultural losses while still conserving species in an ecologically, economical and socially acceptable manner (Ampt & Baumber, 2006). Australia opted for sustainable use of kangaroos to create incentive for their and their habitats’ conservation, creating value for kangaroos through meat harvesting, transforming the perception of kangaroos from a being a liability to an asset (Ampt & Baumber, 2006). The knowledge that kangaroos were a feral and agricultural problem and that harvesting them for meat formed part of a sustainable environmental management plan created a more positive attitude among consumers regarding the ethical use of kangaroo meat (Ampt & Owen, 2008). Therefore, it could be concluded that although consumers seem to prefer natural, organically produced meat from free-ranging animals, they are concerned about harvesting wildlife from wild populations and require some assurance that it is done sustainably, or preferably, that meat is derived from animals kept in well managed extensive systems and specifically bred for meat production. Other ethical considerations that surfaced from research on consumers and kangaroo meat is the fact some consumers felt that it is not ethical to consume meat from wildlife that forms part of their natural heritage, while others felt that it is a unique and valuable resource that should be utilised and still others felt that as long as animals were harvested responsibly and humanely, it was ethical to utilise their meat (Ampt & Owen, 2008). It was clear though, that retailers were not willing to sell kangaroo meat if producers were not completely transparent regarding the production processes and if it was not conducted in a manner which meets the ethical requirements of consumers (Ampt & Owen, 2008). Based on this information, it became important to explore South African respondents’ attitudes toward ethical considerations of game meat production. While it is important for producers to be transparent regarding production methods, it is
53 equally important to understand what respondents deem to be socially acceptable and ethical to ensure that those requirements are met.
3.4 CONCLUSION
Game meat could potentially contribute to global and local food security as a healthy source of protein. However, misconceptions, as well as challenges to both the export and local markets have caused it to remain an underdeveloped product. The South African wildlife industry is searching for solutions to overcome practical challenges, such as disease and regulations, to game meat production. However, it has been identified that a proper marketing strategy must be developed in order to promote the use of the product. The industry needs to understand consumer decision-making with regard to game meat. Since attitudes play a crucial role in consumer decisions, it becomes important to understand South African consumers’ attitudes toward game meat if it is to be marketed effectively. The Fishbein’s attitude-toward-the-object model allows researchers to gain a deeper understanding of consumer attitudes toward a product and its different attributes, making it the ideal model for this research to explore the different attributes of game meat. The research methodology will be described in more detail in the following chapter.
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CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the methodology used for the study. It includes the paradigm applied in this study, the research design, sampling techniques utilised, the questionnaire design and data analysis methods.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The previous chapter presented a literature review on factors influencing the game meat sector as well as the importance and application of attitudes within consumer decision- making and how it pertains to this study. The importance of the attributes of game meat that were included in this research were also described. In this chapter, the paradigm which underpins this study and the research design are discussed. The geographic location of the study is identified; the respondent profile and the sampling strategies used are described. Methods to measure attitudes are identified and the questionnaire design is explained. Thereafter, the operalisation of the study and the data analysis method is presented.
4.2 RESEARCH PARADIGM
The paradigm, or research approach, is used as a framework to approach a research problem and serves as a guide during the inquiry process (Shannon-Baker, 2015). A quantitative approach was used to explore the attitudes of South African respondents toward game meat. The quantitative research approach, or paradigm, utilises data in a numerical format, providing a structured approach to gain results that are considered to be objective (Clow & James, 2014). It seeks to explain patterns of behaviour, describe trends, or compare groups by quantifying results (Egan, 2015; Maree, 2012) and often investigates constructs such as attitudes (Remler & Van Ryzin, 2011). A quantitative approach requires that variables are measured to determine how often a variable is present (Wimmer & Dominick, 2014). These qualities make it the desirable approach to utilise for this study, since the study aimed to compare the trends in respondent attitudes between consumers and non-consumers of game meat.
Within the quantitative paradigm, specific research techniques are applied in order to obtain quantifiable data. Techniques used emphasise measuring something (Egan, 2015). The measurement of attitudes - as required in this study - is typically conducted through the use of scales, which are considered a quantitative research method (Egan, 2015).
55 Furthermore, quantitative research techniques often make use of static questions that are asked to all respondents in the same manner in a self-administered survey (Wimmer & Dominick, 2014; Malhotra, 2012) and are applied as such in this study through measuring respondent attitudes on semantic differential and Likert scales with predefined response choices (Schiffman & Wisenblit, 2015). The application of scales in measuring the attitudes of respondents in this study is described in more detail in Section 4.10.
4.3 RESEARCH DESIGN
Exploratory research is defined as: “A type of research design that has as its primary objective the provision of insights into and comprehension of the problem situation confronting the researcher” (Malhotra, 2012). Exploratory research is especially valuable when researchers are faced with a problem that is not fully understood and is conducted to gain a greater understanding of the concept (McDaniel & Gates; 2013, Malhotra, 2012). At this stage, the researcher is still attempting to be familiarised with the exact nature of the problem (Churchill, Brown & Suter, 2010). The objective of an exploratory study is the discovery of ideas and insights regarding the research problem when very little or no data is available (Malhotra, 2012; Churchill et al., 2010). Consequently, it is most useful in studies where there are no previous research activities conducted or where very limited research findings are available. Exploratory research is conducted on a non- representative sample and allows for the use of a non-probability sample; therefore, the findings should be regarded as tentative and can be used as building blocks for further research (Malhotra, 2012). Since previous research on the attitudes of South African consumers concerning game meat is limited, it was necessary to design an exploratory study. The aim of this study was to provide insight and an understanding regarding the attitudes of South African respondents toward game meat which makes the application of an exploratory approach useful.