SISTEMAS DE CONTROL DE EMISIONES ATMOSFERICAS Y RUIDO

'Achievement is individual, improvement is social. Improvement is social achievement.'

(Lester F. Ward, 1906)

'Development will not mean an escape from problems and will not bring utopia any more than it has in the West, but will merely replace old problems with new ones supposedly less overwhelming. Indonesia has, in any case, little choice - the movement away from traditional forms of life has been proceeding for at least most of this century, and having begun the transition to industrialism, or having it begun for them, the Indonesian must simply go through with it and hope that the second half of this century, now that they are free, will prove better than the first, when they were not. They cannot turn back.' (Clifford Geertz, 1956b)

In spite of the limitation of this study in that the

survey villagers are more typical of rural-urban population movements, it does throw some light on the nature of inter-rural population

movement in West Java. It is obvious that most of the migrants, circulators and commuters are part of the new emerging groups in rural areas of West Java due to the impact of modernization and an urban way of life, and to population growth as was mentioned. The majority of the new emerging groups may have taken part in rural-urban movement instead of inter-rural movement. In the con­ text of Indonesia's development, migration (relatively permanent movement), circulation and commuting (temporary movement) should be considered separately.

Sponsored inter-rural migration in the form of the transmigration programme, which was originally aimed at relieving the crowded population in Java, was started when the 'ethical policy' was adopted by the colonial government around the turn of this century. However, its progress has not been a success story. It does have a considerable impact on population in the destina­ tion areas. Perhaps also, from the economic point of view, it is useful for the destination areas. However, the transmigration programme has established the basis for present and future popula­

tion movements between Java and many parts of the outer islands. There is evidence that many spontaneous migrants have settled in the outer islands, following members of their family, relatives, or friends (Hardjono, 1977:30). The findings of this study have also shown that following husbands, parents and friends is the most important reason for leaving a village and for selecting the destination area of the inter-rural migrants. Therefore, it is true that inter-rural family migration could be encouraged. In this respect, the improvement of transportation facilities

(including cheap transportation cost) and communication networks between the origin and the destination areas in the future would be of value. Moreover, how do the villagers of West Java regard the transmigration programme? A study which was conducted in three villages in West Java concluded that nearly all the villagers con­

sidered the transmigration programme to be an excellent idea

although over 70 per cent of the interviewees believed that no one should be forced by the government to transmigrate. But, experience has shown that volunteers are often hard to find in heavily popu­ lated rural areas (Thomas et al., 1975:169).

Students are among the more interesting groups of rela­ tively permanent movers in rural areas. As many of the rural youths may pursue education in the pesantren (religious vocational schools), the modernization of these institutions is imperative. Practical aspects of agricultural modernization, marketing processes, rural manufacturing, and also population education can perhaps be taught

in these institutions.

The fact that there is a large number of circulators and commuters presents another problem for development. Most of these movements are dominated by economic motives. It was concluded that

their numbers will increase in the future since modernization will be more and more intensive, while relatively rapid population

growth is likely to continue at least until the end of this century. In the future, it seems that agricultural modernization in Java does not promise a considerable number of additional jobs or work opportunities in the agricultural sector, although irrigation would

bo improved. Some agricultural tcclmologies may create additional job opportunities for villagers, while some others substitute for them. These latter technologies, for example, the use of sickles for the cutting of high yielding varieties of rice, would replace a number of harvesters. The landless group may suffer loss of access to job opportunities in the agricultural sector in rural areas while land owners can enjoy the benefit of using those technologies (Collier, 1973:36-45, and Utami and Ihalauw, 1973: 46-56). Today, in rural areas of Java, there are around seven million household heads who are landless or fall into the lower

half of marginal farmers (Sajogyo, 1972-1973) \ Moreover,

modernization is likely to be followed by an institutional revolu­ tion in agricultural and village life. For instance, now there is a sign that the institutions of harvest work are changing in rural areas of Java (Sajogyo, 1972-1973). The majority of the circulators and commuters will consist of those who have little or no agricultural land and those who have lost their access to job opportunities in the agricultural sectors. Special attention should be given to this group. Employment or job opportunities outside agriculture should be made available to them in rural areas in the future. In the writer's opinion, one possibility for experiment is the development of small-scale industries which are incorporated into the development of rural co-operatives. In relation to this, the small-scale industries which are already present as private industries should not be forced to incorporate

1 A marginal farmer is a farmer who has a farm of less than