Sistemas de gestión de calidad

Chapter 3 presents the educational approaches that are used to produce Entrepreneurial Engineers. The chapter commences with a discussion of the roles played by tertiary-level academic institutions in the creation of entrepreneurial graduates and the overall

entrepreneurship education process. It then continues with defining entrepreneurship education and highlighting the importance of entrepreneurship education, and discusses the changes that have occurred in, and structure of, entrepreneurship education. Next, the chapter continues with a discussion of how engineering education has evolved, how

academic institutions have responded to the need for Entrepreneurial Engineers, and a description of the entrepreneurship initiatives that have been created for engineering students. The chapter then discusses the Standish-Kuon and Rice (2002) typology, which presents previous research on how tertiary-level academic institutions introduce

entrepreneurship to their engineering, as well as science, students, and concludes with a discussion of the gap in the literature of the overall PhD research study.

3.2: The Role of Tertiary-Level Academic Institutions in the creation of

entrepreneurial individuals

Tertiary-level academic institutions play an important role in the Human Capital domain of the entrepreneurship ecosystem (Isenberg 2011; World Economic Forum 2013). The entrepreneurship ecosystem is an environment with interconnected relationships

influenced by a variety of factors, which link people by vision, commitment, passion, and innovation surrounding the achievement of a common goal (Pistrui et al. 2008). Tertiary- level institutions are the source of the entrepreneurial individuals that are needed at a global societal level, arming individuals with the entrepreneurial vision, knowledge, and skills which allow for the recognition and exploitation of these opportunities and the development of solutions (Elia et al. 2011; Frazão et al. 2007; Henry et al. 2003; Herrmann et al. 2008; Kirby 2007; Lucas & Cooper 2004; Rasmussen & Sørheim 2006; Taatila 2010). They also promote and provide entrepreneurship education and training, which in turn

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creates labour in the form of entrepreneurs who operate in the ecosystem (Henry et al. 2003; Isenberg 2011), thereby promoting change (Frazão et al. 2007; Kirby 2007).

To create entrepreneurial individuals, it is important for tertiary-level academic institutions to create an environment and organisational culture that facilitates the teaching of

entrepreneurship and the ability to learn think, learn, and behave in an entrepreneurial manner (Bygrave & Zacharakis 2009; Frazão et al. 2007). These institutions must also provide the relevant human resources who are knowledgeable in different entrepreneurial areas (Frazão et al. 2007), as well as allow for the shaping of entrepreneurial cultures and aspirations of students which potentially lead to the development of regional and societal economies (Autio et al. 1997; Binks et al. 2006; Co & Mitchell 2006; Landström 2007; Mahlberg 1996). Therefore, tertiary-level academic institutions should become an

entrepreneurial environment where entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial activity amongst the students are supported (Gnyawali & Fogel 1994; Roffe 1996), where ideas for new companies can be formed and graduates can be created who can be employed in these new companies (World Economic Forum 2013), and where business creation, continuous

organisational renewal and improvement, sustained competitiveness, and overall economic development can be encouraged (Binks et al. 2006). Providing entrepreneurship education is vital to creation of such an environment.

Entrepreneurship education has become increasingly important (Abdulwahed et al. 2013a; De Faoite et al. 2003; Elmuti et al. 2012; Henry et al. 2003). For example, entrepreneurship education must create individuals who are able to recognise and exploit opportunity, cope with uncertainty, comprehend in the face of chaos, and anticipate, initiate and cope with change (Kirby 2007). It must also create individuals who can create and develop small innovative enterprises, recognise, exploit, and implement entrepreneurship opportunities, state the goals of any new activities, create business plans, know sources for finances and potentially acquire resources, and ultimately be able to manage the resultant business (Frazão et al. 2007). The promotion of entrepreneurship education can also stimulate the occurrence of entrepreneurial activities, for example, the creation of entrepreneurial ventures (Blenker et al. 2011; Falkäng & Alberti 2000; Heinonen & Poikkijoki 2006). The teaching environments of tertiary-level academic institutions, as a result, have the greatest

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influences impacting students’ perceptions of entrepreneurship and the overall intention to an entrepreneurial career (Autio et al. 1997; Keat et al. 2011; Mueller 2011; Rasli et al. 2013). Research has shown that entrepreneurship can be learned and practiced in classroom settings (Fiet 2000a), which means that entrepreneurship competencies and abilities can be developed and improved with education and training (Abdulwahed et al. 2013a; Bryant & Poustie 2001; Heinonen & Poikkijoki 2006).

To meet the growing need for engineering graduates who possess entrepreneurial knowledge and skills, different university-based entrepreneurship educational initiatives have been and are being created (Duval-Couetil 2013; Gorman et al. 1997; Hynes &

Richardson 2007; Katz 2003; Klofsten 2000; Kuratko 2005; Rideout & Gray 2013; Solomon & Fernald 1991; Vesper & Gartner 1997). University-based entrepreneurship initiatives are courses and co-curricular/extra-curricular activities that teach entrepreneurial

management, strategy, innovation, and venture development in a university setting (Rideout & Gray 2013). Tertiary-level academic institutions have created, and are still creating, educational courses, programmes, seminars, and other educational initiatives that enable students from a variety of academic disciplines to acquire entrepreneurial

knowledge and competencies (Duval-Couetil 2013; Katz 2003; Klofsten 2000; Kuratko 2005; Solomon & Fernald 1991; Vesper & Gartner 1997). The aim of these initiatives is to

encourage the occurrence of enterprising activities which in turn encourage small business and economic growth (Gordon et al. 2010; Hynes & Richardson 2007). Furthermore, these academic institutions prepare students for the real world by increasing the availability of entrepreneurial activities and experiential educational programmes such as business plan and product development competitions, technology commercialisation activities, and internships with start-up ventures (Duval-Couetil 2013).

The purpose of these entrepreneurship initiatives, in addition to the encouragement of entrepreneurial activities, is to facilitate entrepreneurial learning. Entrepreneurial learning is about the transformation of experience and knowledge into functional learning outcomes, and is comprised of knowledge, behaviour, and effective or emotional learning (Cope 2005). It is a process which involves the acquisition of entrepreneurial skills (Täks et al. 2014); as well as recognising, creating, and acting on opportunities in innovative and opportunistic

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ways (Rae 2003, 2006). Entrepreneurial learning can be social and organisational, or individual, which take into account that personal differences in ability produce different learning outcomes (Corbett 2005). It is influenced by the context within which learning occurs, and includes the content of what is learned as well as the processes through which learning takes place (Politis 2005). The process of entrepreneurial learning is closely linked to the processes of opportunity recognition (Dutta & Crossan 2005), creativity, innovation, and opportunity exploitation (Lumpkin & Lichtenstein 2005).

In summary, tertiary-level academic institutions play an important role in the creation of entrepreneurial graduates. These institutions prepare the labour needed in world

economies by offering a variety of entrepreneurship initiatives that are designed to teach students the knowledge and skills needed to act in an entrepreneurial manner. They also create environments which can foster the entrepreneurial learning of students and potentially encourage students’ entrepreneurial intention. However, to gain a deeper understanding of entrepreneurship education and its effect, it is necessary to acquire further insight into the inner workings of entrepreneurship education. This will be the focus of the following section.

3.3: Definition and the Importance of Entrepreneurship Education

It is important for world economies to invest in the development of human capital through entrepreneurship education given that human capital is able to create economic growth through knowledge (Acs et al. 2004; Acs et al. 2009). Entrepreneurship education is the result of the belief that entrepreneurship can, and should, be taught (Fiet 2000a; Gibb 2002; Henry et al. 2005a), and not based on the belief that specific genes are required for

entrepreneurial behaviour to occur (Baumol 1983; Katz 1981; Kuratko 2005). It is seen as an effective way of preparing graduates to either become entrepreneurs owning their own enterprises or employees in small businesses (Hynes & Richardson 2007). It is used to train students and arm them with the knowledge and skills that can be used to recognise and act on opportunities (Jones & English 2004). Within the entrepreneurship education process, the focus is on the individuals’ development of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are necessary for the identification and recognition of a business opportunity, coping with risk while organising resources, and the creation of a business venture either in the form of a

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new venture or further development of an existing company (Béchard & Toulouse 1998; Kourilsky 1995). For entrepreneurship education to be effective, the initiatives must equip students with the knowledge, skills, and competencies that are required to be flexible, innovative, and enterprising in an evolving work environment (Hynes & Richardson 2007). Entrepreneurship education is increasing in importance worldwide due to global and organisational changes (Arasti et al. 2012; Gibb 2002; Henry et al. 2005a). One of the major benefits of promoting entrepreneurship is the ability to develop an understanding and clarification of the entrepreneurship field (Abdulwahed et al. 2013a). Entrepreneurship education is responsible for the dissemination of entrepreneurship knowledge (Katz et al.

2014a). In addition, the teaching of entrepreneurship helps to increase students’ knowledge

of entrepreneurship and stimulate entrepreneurship research, and then subsequently improve policy-making and the curriculum for entrepreneurship (Brand et al. 2006).

The promotion of entrepreneurship education is also used for the personal development of learners through the enhanced awareness of learners’ own abilities and the creation of the learners’ entrepreneurial mindset (Täks et al. 2014; Wilson 2008). Furthermore, it facilitates the development of the entrepreneurial skills, attitudes, activity, aspirations, competencies, and culture of the students (Papayannakis et al. 2008; Regele & Neck 2012). As a result, entrepreneurship education is important in stimulating the entrepreneurial potential of individuals (Sundar & Madhavan 2013), and students who participate in entrepreneurship initiatives tend to be more innovative, possess a higher risk-taking propensity, and have a higher desire to be entrepreneurial (Gürol & Atsan 2006; Koh 1996).

Entrepreneurship education is important in developing an entrepreneurial culture within a country (Arasti et al. 2012; Azizi 2009; Nel et al. 2008). It can be used to facilitate and promote the occurrence of entrepreneurial activities which contribute to entrepreneurship development within society and address issues and challenges faced (Akola & Heinonen 2006; Matlay 2005; O'Connor 2013; Papayannakis et al. 2008). It can also be promoted in order to enhance economic growth and development (Mueller 2011). To encourage

economic growth and development, entrepreneurship education plays an important role in moving students’ intentions towards becoming entrepreneurial and creating favourable attitudes towards entrepreneurial activities (Abdulwahed et al. 2013a; Arasti et al. 2012;

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Autio et al. 1997; Azizi 2009; Gerba 2012; Gorman et al. 1997; Johannisson 1991; Kolvereid & Moen 1997; Kourilsky & Walstad 1998; Liñán et al. 2011; Mueller 2011; Noel 2001; Peterman & Kennedy 2003; Tkachev & Kolvereid 1999; Tung 2011; Von Graevenitz et al. 2010). Entrepreneurship education stimulates interest in entrepreneurship (Fayolle & Gailly 2008). It helps students to develop an entrepreneurial spirit, as well as an interest in

entrepreneurship by promoting a positive image of entrepreneurs and the roles that they play in society (Fayolle & Gailly 2008). Furthermore, entrepreneurship education can develop students’ self-efficacy (Abdulwahed et al. 2013a; Hood & Young 1993; Mueller 2011; Tung 2011) and directly impact entrepreneurial behaviour (Donckels 1991; Gasse 1985; Kolvereid & Moen 1997; Tkachev & Kolvereid 1999).

Stemming from economic development and entrepreneurial intention, entrepreneurship education is primarily important in addressing the employment challenges faced by today’s global economy. Entrepreneurship education can help students to consider pursuing an entrepreneurial career (Abdulwahed et al. 2013a; Charney & Libecap 2003; Lange et al. 2011), and result in the development and creation of new employment opportunities which reduce levels of employment and increase the levels of income within a nation’s economy (McMullan & Long 1987; OECD 2001; Sweeney 1998). The use of entrepreneurship

education can help individuals to develop entrepreneurial knowledge and skills, which can be used to enhance the competitive advantage of a nation’s economy (Kennedy 1993) and help these individuals to consider entrepreneurship as a good career option (Lucas & Cooper 2004). It can also be used as a way of providing students with entrepreneurial activities and opportunities for the potential emergence of entrepreneurial small- and medium-sized enterprises (Abdulwahed et al. 2013a). A major goal of entrepreneurship education, when it comes to addressing employment challenges, is the promotion of new venture creation – entrepreneurship education provides students with the motivation, knowledge, and skills that are essential for the creation of new enterprises (Abdulwahed et al. 2013a; Arasti et al. 2012; Cho 1998; Lucas & Cooper 2004; Tung 2011). The knowledge and skills required for the venture creation process includes, for example, the abilities to

identify business opportunities, plan and manage projects and associated finances, manage people and team, communicate effectively, and handle legal and intellectual property issues (Arion 2013; Schaper & Casimir 2007). The creation of new business ventures is valuable and

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encouraged due to the fact that educated entrepreneurs generally create innovative ventures that experience higher levels of growth and survival and engage in more

international activities (Ching & Ellis 2004) and generally positively influence society (Brand et al. 2006). By stimulating interest in venture creation, students have a greater possibility of engaging in entrepreneurial activities (Minniti et al. 2006).

Students also receive opportunities to gain entrepreneurial experience in a real business context (Autio et al. 1997; Blenker et al. 2011; Crispin et al. 2013; Falkäng & Alberti 2000; Gorman et al. 1997; Johannisson 1991; Kourilsky & Walstad 1998). Practical experiences place students in real-situations which echo those actually present in the business

environment; including, for example, the creation and development of business plans, and working in start-up ventures or classroom simulations (Von Graevenitz et al. 2010), and the launch of new business ventures (Abdulwahed et al. 2013a; Blenker et al. 2011; Falkäng & Alberti 2000). Undertaking these practical experiences provides students to assess their own entrepreneurial abilities and determine whether or not they want to pursue an

entrepreneurial career (Von Graevenitz et al. 2010). The nurturing of potential

entrepreneurs through the provision of entrepreneurial activities through entrepreneurship education can generate valuable long-term benefits, for example, a decrease in the

unemployment levels, an increase in new venture creation, and a reduction in the failure levels of existing businesses (Arthur et al. 2012; Hansemark 1998; Hatten & Ruhland 1995).

3.4: The Changes in Entrepreneurship Education

Tertiary-level academic institutions are the primary providers of entrepreneurship educational initiatives (Fayolle 2013), and the increase in demand for entrepreneurial attribute development has made it necessary for entrepreneurship education teaching approaches to simultaneously grow. Traditionally, entrepreneurship-based programmes and courses were offered by and situated in the business school (Byers et al. 2013; Kriewall & Mekemson 2010; Luryi et al. 2007). However, the way in which entrepreneurship education is offered has since evolved.

There has been increasing interest in entrepreneurship education, and as a result, there has been a great increase in the presence of entrepreneurship education initiatives in tertiary-

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level academic institutions, as well as a growth in the number of these institutions that offer entrepreneurship initiatives, worldwide (Arthur et al. 2012; Blenker et al. 2011; Falkäng & Alberti 2000; Gibb 1993; Katz 2003; Kuratko 2005; Kuratko & Hodgetts 2014; Neck & Greene 2011; Solomon et al. 2002). In these institutions, there has been a greater presence of support and facilities for entrepreneurship education. For example, more than 600 universities worldwide have created entrepreneurship centres and institutions, and an increasing number of tertiary-level academic institutions are creating entrepreneurship schools and academic departments (Morris et al. 2013a). Different reasons have been highlighted to justify this increase in entrepreneurship educational initiatives: to arm students with the knowledge and competencies necessary to enable the creation of

economic value and jobs (Duval-Couetil 2013), the recognition that entrepreneurship plays a significant role in the creation of jobs and the economic growth in the society and helps to increase the levels of entrepreneurship that occur (Carree & Thurik 2003; Hynes 1996; Kuratko 2003, 2005), the connection that exists between entrepreneurship and innovation (Ching & Ellis 2004; Jack & Anderson 1999), and the increased need for entrepreneurial employees and subsequently intrapreneurship in existing organisations (Hayton 2004; Hornsby et al. 1999; Hornsby et al. 1993; Kuratko et al. 1990).

There is great diversity in entrepreneurship programmes, ranging from the schools within which they are housed, the methods and approaches used to teach the initiatives, and the subjects and content taught across different initiatives (Crispin et al. 2013). In the available literature, it has been noted that entrepreneurship education should not be confined to the business schools, but instead be offered in any school or major where the students will require entrepreneurial characteristics for their future careers (Katz et al. 2014a). We are now witnessing the move of entrepreneurship educational initiatives – including

programmes, courses, and other entrepreneurial activities – away from being situated in one single school, centre, or department, typically the business school, towards being present in numerous schools, colleges, or departments of the tertiary-level academic institution, for example the Schools of Engineering, Agriculture, Arts and Sciences, Education, and Fine Arts (Cone 2004; Katz et al. 2014b; Klein & Bullock 2006; Kriewall & Mekemson 2010; Thorp & Goldstein 2013; West III et al. 2009). There has also been an increase in the range and type of entrepreneurship programmes that are being offered

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(Hynes & Richardson 2007). For example, there are initiatives that are more focused, with entrepreneurship courses being taught in one school for the students specifically from that school and without the involvement of the faculty or students from any other school (Streeter et al. 2002). Another example is the presence of entrepreneurship initiatives that are offered campus-wide with related classes taught in a number of different locations (Katz et al. 2014b). In addition, there is a presence of new, interdisciplinary programmes created by combined faculty teams specifically for non-business students (Kuratko 2005).

There have also been changes in the offerings in the entrepreneurship educational initiatives and the students targeted. Entrepreneurship education is no longer only for business students – all graduates, regardless of discipline, must possess the knowledge and skills that are required for the changed work environment, which therefore make it

necessary for entrepreneurship education to be present both within and outside the business discipline (Hynes & Richardson 2007; Kriewall & Mekemson 2010). Non-business students are valuable target groups for entrepreneurship education, and it is beneficial for non-business students to be educated about entrepreneurship (Brand et al. 2006). There

has been an increase in entrepreneurship courses designed specifically for non-business

students, for example, arts, science, and engineering students (Brand et al. 2006; Kriewall & Mekemson 2010; Kuratko 2005). This has seen the presence of courses in areas such as technological entrepreneurship, social entrepreneurship, arts entrepreneurship, and family business management (Klein & Bullock 2006). There has also been an increase in

experiential activities geared at providing students with hands-on entrepreneurship experience (Blenker et al. 2011).

There are different reasons to support the promotion of entrepreneurship education for non-business students. For example, non-business students have a variety of characteristics that can enhance entrepreneurship potential, including knowledge in their respective domains which enable potential opportunities to be recognised (Shane 2000). The type of opportunities that will be identified by non-business students will be dependent on the personal and everyday-life of students in addition to specific knowledge from their respective fields of education which could be used to generate innovative ideas for new products, processes, services, or businesses (Brand et al. 2006). In addition, there is the

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knowledge that this awareness can be influenced by entrepreneurship education (Brand et al. 2006), and that the intention to start a venture may be stronger due to the fact that the students have not previously considered an entrepreneurial career (Krueger et al. 2000). An extension of this is the fact that non-business students lack business and managerial-related knowledge in addition to knowledge of the entrepreneurial process, which could result in students and their minimised awareness of their own entrepreneurial potential (Brand et al. 2006).

In the engineering discipline, the sentiments behind the integration of entrepreneurship and engineering education are echoed in the discussion of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education. A scientific-based education provides knowledge and skills that are beneficial to a variety of careers (West 2012). Businesses and other organisations in