The manifestations of teachers’ agency identified in the case studies bear several implications for UPE. For example, the teachers’ mediation of automatic promotion through practising repetition has been identified as detrimental to the programme. It is widely blamed for the over enrolment, particularly in primary six, which has affected the quality of teaching and learning (MoES 2014a; MoES 2014b; MoES 2015; Nakabugo et al. 2008). Lewin (2009) notes that repetition increased grade six enrolment from being 30 percent higher than grade seven in the 1990s to 90 percent higher in 2004. Similarly, the government and donors have noted that it undermines ‘education efficiency’ by delaying progression, which increases the unit cost of education (CREATE 2011; MoES 2008a; Foster 2004). It is estimated that repetition squanders at least 57 percent of Uganda’s scarce education resources (MoES 2014a). However, the practice of automatic promotion itself is being increasingly questioned by some stakeholders in the context of the persistent lack of school inputs (see chapter six). They have pointed out that the lack of inputs undermines learning, making it impractical to practice automatic promotion (MoES 2014a; Piper 2010).
The teachers’ violation of the ban on corporal punishment similarly carries negative effects. Corporal punishment constitutes a violation of the basic rights of children, thus, it undermines the goal of curbing abuse in schools and fostering a conducive learning environment (UNICEF 2010). Furthermore, it undermines the goal of universalising access since it increases pupil dropout (Oonyu 2012; see also Ssewamala et al. 2011; Lewin 2009). The failure of schools/teachers to implement the entry age policy also has mainly negative effects. It increases the wastage of resources since schools enrol underage pupils who may fail to cope with the curriculum. This exacerbates failure and dropout, in addition to being
detrimental to the well-being of the affected children (World Bank 2013b; CREATE 2011; Lewin 2009).
The teachers’ abandonment of local language teaching as witnessed, for instance, in Mirembe has several implications. Firstly, it exacerbates the low confidence which some stakeholders have in the practice (Abiria et al. 2013; Piper 2010; Altinyelken 2010a). In addition, it heightens the possibility of a spiral effect among other rural schools such as Elgonia, which are currently compliant but feel disadvantaged since urban UPE schools and private schools are excluded from practising the policy (see Kisembo 2008; Ssentanda 2014).
The increased cooperation which the teachers are adopting in response to the challenges of UPE has a positive effect. Their strategies such as increased knowledge sharing, swapping lessons and supporting absent colleagues, contributes to their professional growth, as well as improves the curriculum. Similarly, the Elgonia teachers’ initiative of teaching ‘important’ topics omitted by the new curriculum promotes curriculum development, as well as enhances their professional growth (see Altinyelken 2010b).
Pertaining to the teachers’ adaptations to the lack of inputs, for example, copying course book content on manila paper or teaching in the chapel, its outcome is similarly positive. The teachers’ initiatives contribute in averting potential crises which might result from these input shortages, thus ensuring the continuity of learning. Finally, the teachers’ role in mobilising parents to comply with the school feeding policy is helping to strengthen the practice. This is leading to improvements both in pupil welfare, as well as in stakeholder relationships.
9.8 Conclusion
In this chapter, I focused on analysing the role of teacher agency within the case studies in order to establish its manifestations, the factors that are shaping it, as well as its effects. I applied the ecological approach to teacher agency, which disaggregates it into its iterational, projective and practical-evaluative dimensions, which are normally experienced
as a triad. I identified several cases in which the teachers were responding to contextual challenges based on their attributes, thus achieving agency.
The highest proportion of the cases primarily implicate the practical-evaluative dimension. These involved, for example, the teachers’ practical attempts to mitigate resource challenges such as inadequate infrastructure and instructional materials. The projective dimension is similarly well represented. This was evidenced, for example, in the teachers’ attempts to evolve strategies such as teaching topics outside the thematic curriculum, visiting the surrounding communities and cooperating with problematic stakeholders, in order to achieve long-term objectives. Finally, the iterational dimension was reflected, for example, in the teachers’ violation of the ban on corporal punishment, thus perpetuating the status quo.
In terms of its effects, the results of the teachers’ achievement of agency were mixed. In negative terms, it is contributing to over enrolment, resource wastage and undermining confidence in some policies. In positive terms, it is helping to avert potential crises which might arise from the lack of inputs. It is also contributing towards curriculum improvement and better stakeholder relationships.
10 CONCLUSIONS
10. 1 Introduction
In this chapter, I present a summary of the findings and its implications for curriculum practices under UPE. This study explored the role of teacher agency in the reform of curriculum under UPE, in order to highlight its role in teachers’ professional practice, analyse the ecological factors that are shaping it, as well as its effects. In conceptualising the research design, I framed it under the ontological perspective of critical realism, which guided me in developing a two-phased study design. In phase one, I interrogated the antecedent context of UPE using retroduction (Elder-Vass 2010; Edwards et al. 2014), which aimed at responding to research questions one and two i.e.:
1. What are the emerging changes in the curriculum under UPE reform? 2. How are teachers responding to the curriculum changes?
To complete the inquiry, in phase two, I adopted the ecological approach to teacher agency (Priestley et al. 2015), which addressed the research questions in the contemporary context of UPE.