The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of mindfulness strategies on working memory. This randomized experimental study involved a pre-test/post-test design to investigate the effect of various listening exercises (i.e. music and mindfulness, mindfulness only, music only, and silence) on working memory performance. Change scores were calculated for digits forward and digits backward performance on a computerized digit span task. Using two-tailed independent samples t-tests, change scores were compared between mindfulness and non-mindfulness listening conditions, as well as between music and non-music listening
conditions. Results demonstrated no significant difference between the mindfulness and non- mindfulness conditions for either digits forward or digits backward performance. In addition, results demonstrated no significant difference between the music and non-music conditions for either digits forward or digits backward performance. To identify any significant differences across all listening conditions, a one-way ANOVA was conducted for both digits forward and digits backward performance. No significant differences were found across all listening conditions for either the digits forward or digits backward exercises.
While no significant results were found, it cannot be said confidently that there is no effect on working memory based on the type of listening condition. Due to the low sample size (N = 30) for the analyses conducted, this study lacks the statistical power necessary to detect any effects on the dependent variable (i.e. working memory). Power analysis using G*Power, version 3.1.9.2 (Buchner, Erdfelder, Faul, & Lang, 2014) yielded a suggested sample size of N = 176 for t-test using the following statistical parameters: f2 = .30 (medium to large effect size), β = .05, α = .95. For ANOVA using the following statistical parameters: f2= 0.25 (medium to large effect size), β = .05, α = .95, power analysis yielded a suggested sample size of N = 280.
Because of the low statistical power, it is possible that any effect on working memory was simply not detected.
It is important to consider the potential effect of the length of the listening interventions across groups. The length of the listening interventions, not including the instructions at the beginning and end of the audio files, were equal in length at 7 minutes. However, due to the simplicity of the music only and silent listening conditions, the total length of verbal instructions were shorter (13 seconds) than in the music and mindfulness and mindfulness only groups (2 minutes). The extraneous and systematic variance in time required to complete the listening procedures may have influenced results. This variance may have been accounted for using an Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) with the length of time as the covariate.
Relating to the pre- and post-test digit span exercises, there is also a maturation threat involving participants’ potential fatigue throughout the research procedures. The forward and backward digit span exercises require concentration and focused attention, while the overall length of the exercise will be longer if a participant is successfully providing accurate responses. After completing the forward and backward digit span pre-test, participants were asked to engage in a 7-8 minute listening exercise. It is understandable if participants experienced mental fatigue which may have influenced performance on the digit span post-test. An ANCOVA with the length of the digit span exercises as the covariate may account for this variance. A post-test only design may also be considered in future studies to minimize fatigue related to completing digit span and listening procedures.
Future Research and Applications
Additional modifications of methods and procedures can be made in future studies to increase reliability and validity. Based on power analyses previously mentioned (Buchner et al., 2014) it is clear that a much larger sample size is necessary to increase statistical power with this experimental design. More weeks of recruitment, scheduling, and administration of procedures would be necessary to achieve an appropriate sample size. Administering procedures with each participant individually, as opposed to with other participants in a classroom, allows for
increased internal validity as distractions and influences from other participants are minimized. However, it requires a significant amount of time and resources to administer procedures individually, with each meeting lasting approximately 30 minutes. Involving multiple
researchers to meet with participants individually and administer the listening procedures may be an efficient use of time/resources to increase sample size. Additionally, it may be appropriate to explore any differences between listening groups using two single factorial ANOVAs, one for digits forward and one for digits backward (as opposed to multiple t-tests). The advantage would be limiting the number of statistical hypothesis tests thereby reducing the chance of making a Type I error.
In future studies, it would be important to minimize errors occurring during data collection of the digit span responses. Data on digit span performance was lost for 4 out of 34 participants due to disconnection in wireless internet connection. It would be important in future studies to complete multiple trial digit span exercises to detect potential problems with data collection and avoid technical errors. Completing digit span and listening procedures using a direct internet connection is a potential solution to avoid issues with wireless connection.
Research has supported the implicit influence of music in engaging attention factors even among non-musicians (Koelsch et al., 2002). It is also important to consider research which explores trends in cognitive functioning among trained musicians and non-musicians. Several studies found enhanced executive function, selective attention, and auditory working memory in musicians as compared to individuals without music training (Clayton et al., 2016; Grassi, Meneghetti, Toffalini, & Borella, 2018; Patson, Hogg, & Tippett, 2007). The majority of participants in the current study were students of the Conservatory of Music (63%), while it is possible that other participants not affiliated with the conservatory may have had music training experience. It seems that if trained musicians often demonstrate enhanced selective attention and auditory working memory, many participants in this study may have preexisting skill in the digit span task. However, it is also necessary to consider research which found no differences in cognitive areas such as central executive functioning (Strait, Kraus, Parbery-Clark, & Ashley, 2010) and alerting and orienting (Medina & Barraza, 2019) between those with and without music training. In future studies, it would be important to explore differences in
attention/working memory between trained musicians and non-musicians when engaging in mindfulness exercises.
It is also recognized that participants’ familiarity or liking of the music used in the music- based listening groups may have influenced thoughts and level of focus during the exercises. Some research has found that listening to pleasant music utilizes high levels of attention
(Nemati, Akrami, Salehi, Esteky, & Moghimi, 2019). Additionally, research in music and stress reduction has found that degree of liking for music was a strong indicator for stress reduction, and not level of familiarity (Jiang, Rickson, & Jiang, 2016). While it is understood that the goal of mindfulness practice is not always to reduce stress, identifying the role of familiarity and
liking of music in mindfulness practice seems important. The music chosen for this study is of a particular alternative style of music and may not have been used if not for the researchers’ preference and familiarity of the piece. The piece involves instruments gradually entering in layers which provided an element to focus attention in the music and mindfulness group. Additionally, other musical elements such as vocal style, melody, instrumentation, or
accompaniment may have influenced participant reactions or openness to the exercise. While there was no formal collection of participants’ responses to the music, the researcher did not recall any participant commenting that they were familiar with the music used in the music-based groups. In future studies, it would seem useful to collect information on the participants’
familiarity and liking of the music such as through a brief questionnaire.
The current study investigated digit span results before and after one 7-minute listening exercise. Consistent with previous research (Johnson et al., 2015), it can be understood that one- session of mindfulness practice may not make a significant impact on attention and working memory. Further studies that employ a one-time mindfulness session may consider using a different measure of working memory, such as the operation span task (OSPAN) or Stroop Task, perhaps to more accurately capture the effects of various mindfulness and listening exercises. However, research in mindfulness practice often emphasizes the benefits of multiple sessions, daily practice, skill building, and understanding broader concepts such as non-judgmental awareness (Bishop et al., 2004; Jha et al., 2010; Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Linehan, 2015; Mrazek, 2013; Segal et al., 2013). Future studies may take a more expansive approach, exploring the effects of multiple sessions of mindfulness and music listening, possibly incorporating personal practice and discussion of mindfulness concepts.
Exploring the effects of mindfulness and music listening may illustrate potential benefits in music education. Diaz (2015) discusses the consistent efforts of music educators to support their students in having attentive and meaningful experiences during music listening. The author also emphasizes that increasing attention can enhance emotional and peak affective experiences during music listening. Developing a mindfulness-based music listening exercise which engages working memory and attention may allow for enhanced awareness, emotion, and meaning when listening to music. Understanding the positive effects of mindfulness practice may also be helpful in music education to support self-care for students. It is common among music students in higher education to struggle with fatigue, anxiety, stress, and depression, often related to the pressures of practice and performance (Hildebrandt, Nubling, & Candia, 2012). Supporting students in developing healthy ways of managing mental health and self-care is of importance within music education. Encouraging music students to practice mindfulness, such as
mindfulness and music listening exercises, may help to alleviate common areas of distress.
Recognizing and addressing the influence of attention control and working memory is indicated in the treatment of anxiety and depression. Recent research appears to demonstrate the influence of repetitive negative thinking patterns on the severity of symptoms in anxiety and depression. Mindfulness interventions which enhance attention and working memory may contribute to increased cognitive flexibility and control over repetitive negative thinking. Results of future related studies may further expand understanding of ways music and
mindfulness may be combined to enhance working memory and attention. Research in music perception, music education, and music therapy supports the influence of music in engaging attention and working memory factors (Diaz, 2015; Janata et al., 2002; Koelsch et al., 2002;
Thaut, 2005). Understanding whether music listening may enhance mindfulness practice would be beneficial in evolving music therapy practice and mental health treatment.
Developing a mindfulness practice through music listening may be an approachable and motivating intervention for use in music therapy. Practicing mindfulness through recorded music listening may be an accessible coping exercise to be used outside of direct music therapy sessions. Incorporating mindfulness techniques and concepts into music therapy practice has been a popular area of interest in research and clinical practice. Many music therapists may already utilize mindfulness concepts and interventions within their practice (Chwalek & McKinney, 2015; Lesiuk, 2016; Medcalf, 2017). Further understanding and articulating how music may support mindfulness practice would enhance justification and advocacy for music therapy practice as a whole. Experimental research into the operations and effects of
mindfulness combined with music listening would contribute to the continued effort to identify effective ways of enhancing working memory, managing repetitive negative thinking patterns, and improving quality of life.
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