Situación actual de riesgos en Bases de Datos

Participles, Perfect Active Participle

τὴν δ’ ἐθέλων ἐθέλουσαν ἀνήγαγεν ὅνδε δόμονδε (Willingly he led her willingly back to his house) Clytemnestra succumbs to the charms of her lover Aegisthus,

as described by Nestor in Homer’s Odyssey 3.272 A participle is a verbal adjective, i.e., an adjective built on the stem of a verb.

It is thus a hybrid: part-verb, part-adjective. Like a verb, it has tense and voice, can take an object, and can be modified by adverbs and prepositional phrases, but by itself it cannot be the main verb in a sentence. Like an adjective, it modifies a noun or, when the noun is omitted, functions as a substantive.

Both English and Greek use participles, but the system of participles is far more elaborate in Greek. Here, for example, are all of the participles that can possibly be made from the verb teach in English:

teaching being taught having taught having been taught going to teach going to be taught

As you can see, the ending -ing is characteristic of English participles. They change their form to reflect voice (active, passive) and tense (present, past, future), but not to reflect the gender, number, and case of the noun being modified.

Greek participles, on the other hand, change their form not only to reflect voice (active, middle, passive) and tense (present, future, aorist, perfect), but also to reflect the gender, number, and case of the noun they are modifying. The ancient Greeks loved the elegant succinctness of participles 145.

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and filled their sentences with them. Learning how to form and manipulate participles is therefore an essential task for every student of Greek. This lesson introduces you to all the active participles and describes two ways in which they are used.

Here are paradigms of all the active participles of παιδεύω (present, future, first aorist, and perfect tenses), followed by the paradigm of the second aorist active participle of βάλλω.

Present Active Participle (“teaching”)

Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative/Vocative παιδεύων παιδεύουσα παιδεῦον Genitive παιδεύοντος παιδευούσης παιδεύοντος Dative παιδεύοντι παιδευούσῃ παιδεύοντι Accusative παιδεύοντα παιδεύουσαν παιδεῦον Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative/Vocative παιδεύοντες παιδεύουσαι παιδεύοντα Genitive παιδευόντων παιδευουσῶν παιδευόντων Dative παιδεύουσι(ν) παιδευούσαις παιδεύουσι(ν) Accusative παιδεύοντας παιδευούσᾱς παιδεύοντα Future Active Participle (“going to teach”)

Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative/Vocative παιδεύσων παιδεύσουσα παιδεῦσον Genitive παιδεύσοντος παιδευσούσης παιδεύσοντος Dative παιδεύσοντι παιδευσούσῃ παιδεύσοντι Accusative παιδεύσοντα παιδεύσουσαν παιδεῦσον Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative/Vocative παιδεύσοντες παιδεύσουσαι παιδεύσοντα Genitive παιδευσόντων παιδευσουσῶν παιδευσόντων Dative παιδεύσουσι(ν) παιδευσούσαις παιδεύσουσι(ν) Accusative παιδεύσοντας παιδευσούσᾱς παιδεύσοντα First Aorist Active Participle (“teaching” or “having taught”) Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative/Vocative παιδεύσᾱς παιδεύσᾱσα παιδεῦσαν Genitive παιδεύσαντος παιδευσσης παιδεύσαντος Dative παιδεύσαντι παιδευσσῃ παιδεύσαντι Accusative παιδεύσαντα παιδεύσᾱσαν παιδεῦσαν Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter Nominative/Vocative παιδεύσαντες παιδεύσᾱσαι παιδεύσαντα Genitive παιδευσάντων παιδευσᾱσῶν παιδευσάντων Dative παιδεύσᾱσι(ν) παιδευσσαις παιδεύσᾱσι(ν) Accusative παιδεύσαντας παιδευσσᾱς παιδεύσαντα 146.

Lesson 24 • 155 Second Aorist Active Participle (“throwing” or “having thrown”) Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter

Mixed declension of active participles. Like the adjective πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν, all of the active participles have a mixed declension: they use third-declension endings for their masculine and neuter forms, first-third-declension endings for their feminine forms. The feminines have endings like those of θάλαττα, -ης or, if the letter before the ending is an ι, like those of μοῖρα, -ᾱς.

In the present, future, and second aorist, the participial suffix is -οντ- (a combination of the thematic vowel ο + ντ); in the feminine forms, this suffix appears as -ουσ- (a contraction of οντ + semivocalic ι). In the first aorist, σα replaces the thematic vowel in -οντ-, creating the suffixes -σαντ- and -σᾱσ-.

In the perfect, the participial suffix is -οτ- (originally -ϝοτ-) for masculine and neuter forms, -υι- (a contraction of υσ + semivocalic ι) for feminine forms.

Adding the ending -σι (dative plural) to -οντ- or -σαντ- causes the ντ to drop out and the preceding vowel to lengthen, producing -ουσι or -σᾱσι;

in the perfect active participle, the τ of -οτ- drops out before -σι, but the vowel remains an omicron (-οσι). In the masculine nominative singular, the participial suffix loses its τ (in the first aorist its ν also) and has a long vowel (-ων); the first aorist and the perfect also add ς (-σᾱς, -ως). In the neuter nominative singular, the τ of the suffix drops out, leaving -ον or -σαν; the perfect also adds -ς (-ος).

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The vocative forms of the active participles are always identical with their nominative forms. Movable ν is added to the masculine and neuter dative plural.

Distinguishing features of active participles. Like infinitives, participles are never augmented. The only difference between the present active participle and the future active participle is the tense-marker -σ- added to the stem to make the future tense. The first aorist active participle is distinguished by its -σα-, the second aorist by the same special stem (zero-grade) that it has in its finite forms. The perfect has the reduplicated stem characteristic of the perfect tense. First perfects, as usual, attach a κ to the end of that stem. Second perfect participles have exactly the same endings as first perfect participles, but their stems end in a letter other than a kappa (e.g., λελοιπώς, λελοιπυῖα, λελοιπός).

Active participles all have the persistent accent typical of adjectives. In the present, future, and first aorist, the accent remains on the final syllable of the stem, i.e., on the syllable just before the participial suffix, unless a long ultima forces it to move to the right. In the perfect and second aorist, the accent remains on the participial suffix itself. This helps to distinguish the second aorist active participle from the present active participle (e.g., βάλλων, βαλών). In the feminine genitive plural, the accent jumps to the ultima, as it does in the adjective πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν and in all first-declension nouns.

The present participle of εἰμί (“being”) is nothing more than the suffixes/

endings of the present active participle, written with accents and smooth breathings:

Like the accents of the other active participles, the accent of ὤν, οὖσα, ὄν is persistent; it remains above the participial suffix except in the feminine genitive plural, where it jumps to the ultima. You might expect it to jump to the ultima in the masculine/neuter genitive and dative, singular and plural, on the model of third-declension nouns with monosyllabic stems (see §99.6 in Lesson 16); in active participles with monosyllabic stems, however, that does not happen.

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Lesson 24 • 157 Participles of contract verbs. The present active participle of a contract verb is formed in the same way as the present active participle of a regular verb.

Predictable contractions occur when the -ε, -α, or -ο of the stem makes contact with the -ω or -ο of the participial suffix (-εω, -αω, -οω, -αο → -ω;

-εο, -οο → -ου). Full paradigms for the three types of contract verbs are presented in the appendix.

Aspect of participles. The tense of a participle, like the tense of an infinitive, is associated with a particular aspect. Present tense implies imperfective aspect; aorist tense implies aoristic aspect; perfect tense implies perfective aspect. Future tense implies that the action is intended or expected.

Notice that Greek has no imperfect or pluperfect participles. If they did exist, they would be redundant since the present and perfect participles are sufficient to show imperfective and perfective aspect.

Relative time of participles. While a participle’s tense primarily indicates aspect, it is also a clue to the relative time of the action, i.e., whether it takes place earlier than, at the same time as, or later than the action of the main verb. Here is the significance that each tense most often has:

Present Participle: action contemporaneous with that of the main verb Example: γράφουσα εἶδε (or ἔβλεψε) τὸν λέοντα.

Literal translation: “Writing, she saw the lion.”

Expanded translation: “While she was writing, she saw the lion.”

Aorist Participle: action prior to that of the main verb Example: ἰδοῦσα (or βλέψᾱσα) τὸν λέοντα, ἔφυγεν.

Literal translation: “Seeing/having seen the lion, she fled.”

Expanded translation: “When/after she saw/had seen the lion, she fled.”

Perfect Participle: state contemporaneous with the action of the main verb, but the result of an earlier action now completed Example: τῑμῶμέν σε εὖ πεπαιδευκότα τὰ τέκνα.

Literal translation: “We honor you, having finished teaching the children well.”

Expanded translation: “We honor you because you have taught the

children well.”

Future Participle: action that, at the time represented by the main verb, is still in the future but already anticipated

Example: τῑμήσομέν σε εὖ πεπαιδεύσοντα τὰ τέκνα.

Literal translation: “We shall honor you, going to teach the children well.”

Expanded translation: “We shall honor you if you will teach the

children well.”

A future participle may express the purpose or motivation behind an action, especially when the participle is combined with a verb of motion (e.g., “go,”

“come,” “send,” “summon”).

Example: ἔπεμψάν με παιδεύσοντα τὰ τέκνα.

Literal translation: “They sent me, going to teach the children.”

Expanded translation: “They sent me to teach the children.”

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Since the tense of the participle is a more reliable indicator for aspect than for relative time, you should be on the lookout for adverbs (e.g., νῦν and τότε) and other words in the sentence that will clarify the time relationship between the participle and the main verb.

Example: δοῦλοι τότ’ ὄντες, ἐλεύθεροι νῦν εἰσιν.

Literal translation: “Being slaves then, they are free now.”

Expanded translation: “Although they were slaves then, they are free now.”

Translating a participle accurately requires considering the context and deciding which nuance the author intended the participle to convey.

Every Greek participle can be categorized as attributive, circumstantial, or supplementary, according to its use in a particular sentence. Supplementary participles will not be introduced until the next lesson. In the discussion below, the term “participial clause” refers to the word-group formed by the participle and any modifiers and objects that accompany it.

Attributive participles. An attributive participle modifies a noun, agreeing with it in gender, number, and case, and stands in the attributive position.

Its purpose is the same as that of an attributive adjective or a relative clause:

to characterize the noun that it modifies. It is often advisable to translate an attributive participial clause with a relative clause. Example: ὁ δοῦλος ὁ ἄγων καθ’ ἡμέρᾱν τὰ τέκνα φίλος ἐστίν is literally “the slave daily leading the children is dear,” but it could also be rendered as “the slave who daily leads the children is dear.”

In the example just given, the participle comes immediately after one of the definite articles modifying δοῦλος and thus is clearly in the attributive position. A participle is also considered to be in the attributive position if the only words between it and the preceding article are the participle’s own modifiers (adverbs, prepositional phrases) or objects; e.g., the words in the example could be rearranged as ὁ τὰ τέκνα καθ’ ἡμέρᾱν ἄγων δοῦλος without changing their meaning. (Putting the words in the order ὁ δοῦλος τὰ τέκνα καθ’ ἡμέρᾱν ἄγων or ὁ δοῦλος ἄγων τὰ τέκνα καθ’ ἡμέρᾱν would shift the participle into the predicate position and change the meaning of the clause.)

Like any attributive adjective, an attributive participle may function as a substantive if the noun that it modifies is omitted. Examples: ὁ τὰ τέκνα καθ’ ἡμέρᾱν ἄγων “the (man) who daily leads the children”; ἡ τὰ τέκνα καθ’ ἡμέρᾱν ἄγουσα “the (woman) who daily leads the children”.

Circumstantial participles. A circumstantial participle modifies a noun, agreeing with it in gender, number, and case, and stands in the predicate position. Its purpose is not to characterize the noun but to join with it to describe the circumstances under which the sentence’s main action takes place.

Just as an attributive participial clause is a condensed version of an adjectival (relative) clause, so a circumstantial participial clause is a 151.

Lesson 24 • 159 condensed version of an adverbial clause. Exactly which type of adverbial clause it represents must be deduced from the context. Example: ὁ δοῦλος ἄγων τὰ τέκνα ἔλεγεν is literally “(under the circumstances of) leading the children, the slave was talking,” but, depending on the context, this could be understood as “while he was leading…” (temporal clause) or “although he was leading…” (concessive clause) or “because he was leading…” (causal clause) or “if he was leading…” (conditional clause).

Particles used with participles. Conjunctions like ἐπεί (“after,” “when,”

“since,” “because”) and ἕως (“while”) are used only to introduce adverbial clauses with finite verbs; they are never combined with participles. To clarify the connection in thought between a circumstantial participle and the rest of the sentence, a particle such as καίπερ (“although”), ἅτε (“because”), or ὡς (“as if”) may be placed in front of the participle or at the start of the participial clause.

Vocabulary

καλέω, καλῶ, ἐκάλεσα,

κέκληκα, κέκληµαι call, summon, invite, name [cf. Paraclete]

δεῖπνον, -ου, τό meal, dinner

ἐλπίς, -ίδος, ἡ hope (+ gen. or infinitive) θύρᾱ, -ᾱς, ἡ door [cf. thyroid]

ξενίᾱ, -ᾱς, ἡ hospitality, guest-friendship

ξένος, -ου, ὁ stranger, guest, host [cf. xenon, xenophobia]

ἄνευ (prep. + gen.) without ἅτε (particle + ptcple.) because

καίπερ (particle + ptcple.) although (enclitic -περ makes the accent acute)

ὡς (particle + ptcple.) as, as if, with the avowed intention of, on the grounds that; (conj.) as, since, because, after,

when [= ἐπεί]

As a particle, ὡς implies that the participle gives someone’s professed reason for an action (which may or may not be the real reason). ὡς is used most often with future participles since they show intention or purpose.

Like εἰς, ἐκ, ἐν, ὁ, ἡ, οἱ, αἱ, and οὐ, ὡς is a proclitic and thus has no accent.

After ὡς (just as after καί, οὐκ, ἀλλ’, μή, or τοῦτ’), ἔστι(ν) is accented on its penult.

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Exercises

Greek-to-English Sentences

1. οἱ τῇδε τῇ ἡμέρᾳ λιπόντες τὴν χώρᾱν εἰσὶν οὔτ’ ἄνευ ἐλπίδος οὔτ’ ἄνευ φόβου.

2. ταύτῃ τῇ οἰκίᾱͅ, ἅτε πολλς θύρᾱς καὶ κλνᾱς ἐχούσῃ, πολὺ χαίρομεν.

3. ἐκεῖνον τὸν φιλόσοφον τὸν πάντα τὰ ἑαυτοῦ μάτια πωλήσαντα εἶδες;

4. τίνας ξένους, ὦ δέσποινα, ἐπὶ τὸ δεῖπνον κέκληκας ὡς αὐτοὺς τῑμήσουσα;

5. ὁ ἀγαθὸς δεσπότης ἀποθανὼν πσᾱς τς ἐλπίδας ἡμῶν κέκλοφεν.

6. ὥρᾱ ἡμᾶς, τέκνα οὐκέτι ὄντας, ἔχειν χάριν τοῖς ἡμᾶς εὖ πεπαιδευκόσιν.

7. οὐκ ἄνευ τινὸς τῶν ἐν οὐρανῷ θεῶν ἐκομισάμην τάδε τὰ γέρᾱ ἃ νῦν ὁρᾷς.

8. κατὰ τὸν τῶν Ἑλλήνων νόμον τμᾱ ξενίᾱͅ τε δώροις τε τὸν τάδ’ ἠγγελκότα.

9. ἡμῖν μέν, ῥήτορσιν οὖσι, πολλαὶ χαραί εἰσι, σοὶ δέ, δούλῃ οὔσῃ, ὀλίγαι.

10. τί οὐκ ἀκήκοάς μου, ὦ ἀνάξιε οἰκέτα, καίπερ σε τῷ ὀνόματι καλοῦντος;

English-to-Greek Sentences

1. O gods, attack those who, contrary to the laws of hospitality, have killed (use perfect or aorist participle) a guest upon the couch.

2. With the avowed intention of inviting (use future participle) you (sg.) to dinner, I have betaken myself to your house today.

3. Because they had been leading (use present participle) a happy life for many years, they were not willing to change their ways.

4. The child, being little, fears all the guards although they carry (use present participle) only shields.

5. We are not without some hope of seeing (use infinitive) the trireme that has remained (use perfect or aorist participle) in Greece.

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Lesson 24 • 161 Reading

Dinner Goes to the Dogs (Aesop’s Fable 283)

Ἄνθρωπός τις ἐκάλει ἐπὶ τὸ δεῖπνον τοὺς ἑαυτοῦ ξένους, ὁ δὲ τούτου κύων ἄλλον κύνα ἐκάλει, λέγων· Εὖ δειπνήσεις, ὦ φίλε, παρ’ ἐμοί. ὁ δ’ ἄλλος εἰς τὴν οἰκίᾱν σπεύσᾱς καὶ ἰδὼν τὸ καλὸν δεῖπνον, εἶπε· Βαβαί, πολλαὶ χαραί μοι ἔσονται ἐν ταύτῃ τῇ νυκτί. χαίρων οὖν καὶ σείων τὴν κέρκον, χάριν ἐδήλωσε πρὸς τὸν φίλον τὸν κεκληκότα ἐπὶ τὸ δεῖπνον.

ἀλλ’ ὁ μάγειρος ἰδὼν τὴν ἐκείνου κέρκον, αὐτὸν ἥρπασε καὶ ἔρρῑψε διὰ τῆς θύρᾱς. οἱ δ’ ἄλλοι κύνες αὐτὸν ἰδόντες ἠρώτων·

Πῶς ἐδείπνησας; καὶ οὗτος, οὐκ ἐθέλων τὰ ἀληθῆ εἰπεῖν, εἶπε·

Τὴν ὁδὸν ἰδεῖν οὐκ εἶχον ἅτε πολὺ πεπωκώς.

ὁ λόγος τόδε δηλοῖ· καίπερ κακῶς πρξαντες, οἱ ἄνθρωποι φιλοῦσι προσποιεῖσθαι εὖ πεπρᾱγέναι.

Vocabulary Help for the Reading κύων (line 2) from κύων, κυνός, ὁ, ἡ: dog

δειπνήσεις (line 2) from δειπνέω, δειπνήσω, ἐδείπνησα, δεδείπνηκα, δεδείπνημαι: dine

βαβαί (line 4) wow! (exclamation of surprise or amazement)

σείων (line 5) from σείω, σείσω, ἔσεισα, σέσεικα, σέσεισμαι: shake, wag

κέρκον (line 5) from κέρκος, -ου, ἡ: tail µάγειρος (line 7) from μάγειρος, -ου, ὁ: cook πῶς (line 9) how? (interrogative pronoun)

πεπωκώς (line 10) from πνω, πομαι, ἔπιον, πέπωκα, πέπομαι: drink 5

10

Ω

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Lesson 25

Ω-Verbs

Present Middle/Passive Participle

In document Modelo de monitoreo de procesos en línea de una base de datos. (página 40-46)