Situación Tributaria

Water storage has a vital role in tackling floods and droughts to enhance crop production. There is a wide range of water storage options, as depicted in Figure 6-4. The best option is to focus on flexibility in storage systems, wherever possible combining a variety of water storage types that will provide a crucial mechanism for adaptation to the coming climate extremes (International Water Management Institute (IWMI), 2009). Therefore, we proposed the diverse storage infrastructure encompassing all options, except soil moisture (in the last column of Figure 6-4 and Table 6-6). Because of soil moisture conservation techniques, for example, bunding and terracing prevail commonly in rice fields since the past. The proposed solutions were selected based on the following criteria:

1) Address both floods and droughts,

2) Simple and affordable, building on existing initiatives, 3) Proved effective in previous studies or pilot projects, 4) Apply Nature-based solutions where appropriate.

Figure 6-4 The continuum of water storage options (International Water Management Institute (IWMI), 2009), and our proposed measures (the last column) for solving floods and droughts at the Mun River Basin, Thailand.

Those criteria facilitate the selection of potential and reasonable measures feasible to be implemented to solve floods and droughts with minimizing environmental transformation and impacts. They need to be executed with careful attention by the cooperation among the corresponding responsible parties as presented in Table 6-6. Table 6-6 Summary of proposed measures and strategies along with responsible

parties.

Proposed measures and strategies

Responsibility Central

government

Local

government Farmers Improvement of existing measures

- Completion of designed distribution systems,

and repair of the deteriorated schemes ✓ ✓ ✓ - Planning and execution of regular inspection

and maintenance practices ✓ ✓ - Post-implementation reviews of the

controversial projects ✓ ✓ ✓ - Reservoir operation & early warning systems ✓ ✓ ✓

Individual farm pond ✓ ✓

Subsurface floodwater harvesting system ✓ ✓

Oxbow lake reconnection ✓ ✓

6.7.1 Improvement of existing measures

Despite investment in new water development projects, what the government should concern now is the inefficiency and ineffectiveness of the existing measures, which is the fundamental problem here. Some recommendations to improve the performance, efficiency, and add value to the in-situ measures are given below.

The construction of designed distributed canals and systems, repair or rehabilitation of the deteriorated elements and schemes should be accomplished. Moreover, in some areas, the distribution canals may need to be reconsidered because of the salinity problem. The lessons from the irrigation scheme in Sisaket province document that the irrigation canals are used every 3-4 years to supplement the wet-season crops during dry years, and some canals are left unused (Shannon, 2005). This knowledge and experiences of local farmers should thus take into account together with the financial support from the central government and technical assistance from local government agencies.

Additionally, it is necessary to have a plan of routine inspection and maintenance in which the division of duties between the local government and farmers should be clearly described, and at the beginning, the farmers’ responsibilities should be sufficiently supported by government measures or assistance. The local government

should develop and implement the maintenance plan in collaboration with local farmers. Involvement of farmers is essential for maximizing returns from irrigation projects, and this should receive high priority (Jurriëns & Jain, 1993). Local water-user groups can devise institutions to manage the irrigation system sustainably as their livelihoods depend on that common property, they thus have the greatest incentives to maintain it over time (Bromley, 1992; Meinzen-Dick, Raju, & Gulati, 2002). To make farmers involvement effective, legislative backing and financial incentives will be required in the initial years (Jurriëns & Jain, 1993).

For the controversial projects such as Rasi Salai, Hua Na, and Pak Mun dams, if the government wishes to continue the plans, the post-implementation monitoring and reviews should be sufficiently conducted over many years, although they are not a legal obligation. It is because the large water projects, which resulted in ecosystem degradation, not only affect local people livelihoods but also connect to several health issues, e.g., snail-borne diseases such as schistosomiasis (blood fluke infection) or opisthorchiasis (liver fluke infection), and mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria and filiariasis (Keiser et al., 2005; Service, 1991; Shannon, 2005). These undesirable side- effects are usually received little attention because other priorities, e.g., maximizing or increasing agricultural production and economics, dominate the scene (Service, 1991). The reviews should include all relevant aspects, including environmental, social, health, economic impacts, and need the greater intersectoral and interdisciplinary collaboration of all stakeholders. The knowledge of local communities should not be ignored or undervalued as the locals are directly impacted by the development projects.

For reservoir operation, the government should implement operational rules in daily operations by a preference for up-to-date measurement and real-time forecasts of weather and flow conditions. These operational rules should include multi-purpose optimization real-time reservoir operation with model predictive control to support real-time operations. In addition, the results from reservoir operation and forecast can also be used for flood early warning at the downstream of the reservoir. Early warning is used to issue warnings when a flood is imminent or already occurring. Consequently, it helps to minimize human fatalities, injuries, and health risks as well as properties damage. However, all of these suggestions will not be successfully implemented if local stakeholders are not involved in the planning and decision process. It is because stakeholder involvement is likely to result not only in better information and knowledge at the local sites but also in understanding community resilience and adaptation capacity (Lang et al., 2012).

6.7.2 Individual farm pond

One of the main justification for the promotion of the investment in water-related projects in northeast Thailand was dry-season rice agriculture; however, the large- scale adoption of dry-season rice farming never happened, less than 5% across the basin (Floch et al., 2007). From our point of view, it is difficult for the large-scale dry- season rice cultivation to be possible if other factors, i.e., cropping pattern, field irrigation practices, etc. remain unchanged. It is because the total precipitation over the wet rice-growing season over the past 30 years have never met the rice water needs. Moreover, although the annual rainfall did at some rain-gauge stations, particularly at the stations on the east part of the basin, it is still not sufficient for both wet- and dry- season rice agriculture (Figure 6-5). Furthermore, many farmers are reluctant to plant the second rice because of low yields, fewer profits due to expenses of electricity (for irrigation pumps), chemical fertilizer, and pesticide. Also, the farmers in many areas do not use irrigated water because it is highly saline, and that significantly reduce yields (Kamkongsak & Law, 2001; Shannon, 2005).

Figure 6-5 Averages of annual precipitation and total precipitation over the rice- growing season at all stations for 1984-2016, and the total water requirement for rice. Rain-gauge stations are listed from west to east.

Base on the above situations and as precipitation is still the primary source for agriculture, the only objective should be sufficient water for the wet-season rice cultivation. If rainwater is efficiently caught and stored, there would have been enough for the wet-season rice, and if there is surplus water, farmers can gain additional benefits from other second crops such as soybeans, watermelons, and

Average = 1,224 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 Na 2 5 0 8 2 Na 2 5 0 7 2 Na 2 5 0 6 2 Na 2 5 1 4 2 Na 2 5 2 4 2 Na 2 5 2 1 2 Na 2 5 0 1 3 Na 2 5 0 9 3 Na 2 5 1 1 2 Na 2 5 0 4 2 K o 1 4 0 3 3 Na 2 5 5 9 2 Na 2 5 2 2 2 Na 2 5 1 9 2 Na 2 5 6 0 2 B u 0 2 2 1 2 Na 2 5 2 5 2 Na 2 5 1 8 2 B u 0 2 0 3 3 B u 0 2 2 5 2 B u 0 2 0 9 2 M a 2 1 2 5 2 B u 0 2 0 1 2 B u 0 2 2 3 2 M a 2 1 0 6 3 B u 0 2 0 5 2 B u 0 2 1 0 2 M a 2 1 0 3 2 S u 6 2 0 9 2 S u 6 2 0 1 3 Ro 4 9 3 1 2 S u 6 2 0 4 3 S u 6 2 0 5 2 S u 6 2 0 2 2 S u 6 2 1 1 2 S i57 0 5 2 S i57 0 7 2 S i57 0 8 2 S i57 2 0 3 Y a 7 2 0 7 2 Y a 7 2 0 4 2 A m 7 6 0 1 2 S i57 0 6 3 A m 7 6 0 3 2 Ub 6 7 3 0 2 Ub 6 7 0 1 3 Ub 6 7 0 8 2 Ub 6 7 0 9 2 Ub 6 7 1 3 2 Ub 6 7 3 8 2 Ub 6 7 1 1 2 Ub 6 7 0 2 2 Ub 6 7 1 4 2 Unit: mm Rain-gauge stations

vegetables suitable to the season which require less amount of water than the dry- season rice.

According to the ‘New theory’ agriculture developed by King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand, after the large-, medium-, and small- reservoirs, distribution canals, and systems were constructed, villagers should build small farm ponds and connect to the constructed reservoirs in order to be able to efficiently manage the water and their farmland (The Chaipattana Foundation, n.d.). The pilot project was carried out at Ban Limthong, a village with 108 households in Buri Ram province in the Mun River Basin, where floods and droughts periodically occur. The results reveal that by adopting the ‘New theory,’ the flood and drought problems that plagued the community for decades are solved, and it also created a stable buffer for the village (van Steenbergen, Tuinhof, Knoop, & Kauffman, 2011).

As the reservoirs have been already constructed over the entire basin, we, therefore, propose to build individual farm ponds, another imperative component to complete the system. Estimation of pond size is necessary to ensure the availability of water on a probability basis for irrigation (Palmer, Barfield, & Haan, 1982). Thus, in this study, the volume of the farm pond is estimated using the equation:

Pv = [

(WR - P)×AI

Ef + PS×Aw + E×As]× (1+S)

(6.1)

where Pv (m3) isthe total pond volume, WR (mm) is the total crop water requirement, P (mm) is average precipitation, AI (m2) is the total irrigation area, and Ef (%) is on- farm irrigation efficiency which, in this case, 80% for open channel flow is used (Kirdpitugsa & Kayankarnnavy, 2009). PS (mm) is total percolation and seepage losses; the average value of 2 mm/day from observation is adopted (Kirdpitugsa & Kayankarnnavy, 2009), Aw (m2) is the wetted area of the pond, E (mm) is total pan evaporation obtained from Hydro and Agro Informatics Institute (2012), As (m2) is the surface area, and S is the surplus storage, at least 10% of the full storage (Clark, Stanley, Zazueta, & Albregts, 2002). It is important to note that PS and E account for the total duration of the water to be stored in the pond before irrigation.

We estimated the pond size of the only month of October when it is a high-water shortage, and rice is most fragile to drought. It is because the precipitation here starts from mid-May and reaches the maxima in August or September when some areas are flooding because of extreme precipitation intensity. We thus keep this excess runoff, which generally causes damage to rice growth and yields (Prabnakorn et al., 2018) then utilizes it in October when precipitation declines. Thus, besides reserving water for

rice cultivation, another advantage of the pond is increasing the total water storage capacity, which can reduce and prevent flooding.

The sizes of the pond are: 3,100 m3 _{per 1 ha (500 m}3 _{per 1 rai) (rai is the local Thai} measurement of areas = 1600 m2_{) if only the KDML105 is planted; 2,670 m}3 _{per 1 ha} (435 m3 _{per 1 rai) if only the RD6 is planted; and 2,880 m}3 _{per 1 ha (470 m}3 _{per 1 rai) if} both the KDML105 and RD6 are equally planted. The pond sizes are estimated relative to the average precipitation over the entire basin; thus, water deficits in some areas or some years may arise if rainfall is less than the average. However, if the full distribution systems are constructed, and the farm ponds are connected with medium and small reservoirs, these reservoirs will serve as water reserves for repletion of the ponds to ensure water availability.

Considering the pond depth at 3 m, the pond sizes occupy about 10% of the farm area, in other words, farmers have to sacrifice about 10% of their land to ensure water availability in October, which will significantly enhance rice yields. It is thus a trade- off between agricultural land and water security for rice cultivation. If farmers prefer the full capacity to be assured of no water deficits for rice, about 15% of the area is required for excavation of the ponds. Moreover, the pond sizes can be redesigned to be more cost-effective and suitable for each farm by using the above equations along with specific climatic conditions, cropping patterns, and soil properties in each area. Farmers themselves are the key driver for farm pond development. However, due to their low income, they still need financial support, i.e., funding loans or subsidies from the government, foundations, or private sectors, to carry out the relevant activities. Also, cooperation with local government agencies for the construction of irrigation canal systems, data support and consulting (van Steenbergen et al., 2011).

6.7.3 The subsurface floodwater harvesting system

After a long time, that flood and drought mitigation measures in Thailand have solely revolved around surface water storage; however, recently, Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) has been recognized. Pavelic et al. (2012) apply the MAR concept to capture floodwater to recharge subsurface storage, and from which the water is drawn as groundwater for agriculture uses during the dry season. The pilot trial is in the Lower Yom River Sub-basin of the Chao Phraya River Basin in Thailand, and the findings reveal that the groundwater recharge reduced the magnitude of flooding and generated approximately USD 250 M/year in farm earnings from dry season production of irrigated rice.

This approach is an element of water storage that should not be neglected (International Water Management Institute (IWMI), 2009). It can be adopted to mitigate flood and drought problems in the Mun River Basin although some parts of the basin, especially the Mun River upstream and the tributaries in the upper part of the basin, have salinity problem (total dissolved solids: TDS > 1500 mg/l) (Figure 2-8). It is not worth the investment to conduct the MAR in those areas because thought it can reduce flood peaks, no recovery benefit for productive use is obtained because the groundwater with the TDS ≥ 2000 mg/l is not suitable for irrigation, and it will cause severe yield reduction (Ayers & Westcot, 1985). We, therefore, propose to implement the MAR at the tributaries upstream at the lower and the eastern parts of the basin where there are fewer or no salinity hazards. This will result in less flood volume, and its adverse impacts downstream, and the recharge water is vital for supplementing surface water utilization, and to ensure ongoing groundwater exploitation by more than 75% of villages over northeast Thailand (Srisuk, Sriboonlue, Buaphan, & Hovijitra, 2001) for agriculture and consumption.

Though the MAR has the advantage of a smaller footprint on the landscape, the total cost of the whole system establishment, operation, and maintenance are too high for the farmers alone. The support from the local government agencies is necessary in terms of budget availability and technical and administrative work. A thorough study regarding the MAR implementation in the basin is inevitable to ensure that only floodwater is captured without significantly impacting the supply-demand balance downstream. This requires a close partnership between the local government and farmers. The farmers also play an important role in the ongoing operational performance and maintenance of the flood harvesting structure. Financial or incentives maybe need to soliciting their efforts and continuing participation and their contribution to reducing the magnitude of flooding downstream (Pavelic et al., 2012).

6.7.4 Oxbow lake reconnection

Reconnection of oxbow lake is a Nature-Based Solutions measure that can help in slowing run-off and reducing flood peaks as well as storing excess water in the lake to use during dry spells. Additionally, the oxbow lakes accommodate habitat diversity as spawning places for fish and other aquatic groups (Obolewski & Glińska‐Lewczuk, 2011). There is substantial evidence of fruitful implementation of oxbow reconnection in many places, for example at the Morava River in Slovak (CIS, 2006), and Tisza River in Hungary (Fisher & Stratford, 2008); the oxbow lake reconnections prove successful in increasing flood protection capacity and restoration of hydrological connectivity, and significantly benefiting ecological status. In order to reconstruct oxbow lake, the fundamental elements of the measure should include an inlet work at the entrance and an outlet structure to control the floodwater as in Figure 6-6.

Figure 6-6 Components of reconnecting oxbow lakes.

Regarding the physical characteristics of the Mun River that is meandering and anabranching, and as a result of the hydrological and geomorphological process, numerous oxbow lakes have been cut-off from the main river causing a reduction in river’s storage capacity. Thus, reconnecting the oxbow lakes is another effective way for flood and drought mitigation. The approach makes use of the natural river characteristic; therefore, the relevant work is not as vast as the new whole projects, and likely to be done by the cooperation between villagers and local government agencies. The local people also have a major part in operation and maintenance with financial and incentive support as well as technical assistance from the local water agencies. Besides the proposed measures mentioned above, the non-structural measures such as field management practices, land use planning and policy should be taken into consideration. The field management techniques for rice cultivation such as furrow irrigation, alternate wetting and drying irrigation (AWD), rice ratooning, diminish water demand for rice cultivation and increase water productivity. The accomplishment of those practices in many countries is documented in many studies, for example, Atta (2008); Lampayan et al. (2004); Santos, Fageria, and Prabhu (2003); Wang et al. (2018). Whereas land-use planning minimizes development in flood-prone areas, and conserve floodplains and wetlands as natural water storages. This will reduce flood and drought damage, and is essential for ecosystems.

6.8 Conclusions

The study aims to solve flood and drought damage to rice cultivation in the Mun River Basin in Thailand; therefore, all dimensions related to both hazards are considered at the basin scale, including affected areas, flooding volumes, water supply, water

demand, water deficits, etc. Subsequently, the coping capacity of the current and ongoing projects is evaluated, and the flaws and factors influencing their achievement are discussed. Then, we propose the potential measures along with corresponding responsible parties to cope with both problems and to enhance rice yields.

The findings present that the total storage capacity of all existing measures is sufficient to tackle floods and droughts. However, the opposite often proves to be the case in reality – both hazards still occur in different periods and more frequently. The major causes of this failure involve geological and physical characteristic constraints, political motivation without technical and economic support in project development, incomplete construction of irrigation distribution systems and lack of regular inspection and maintenance, the challenge of reservoir operation, and fragmented institution framework. However, recently, the government reformed the institution structure and launched the first National Water Resource Act and the 20-year master plan with the expectation of unity and consistency in water resources management in Thailand.

We propose the potential measures and suggestions to solve flood and drought problems focusing on flexibility in storage systems by combining a wide range of water storage options: improvement of existing projects, farm ponds, subsurface floodwater harvesting system, and oxbow lake reconnection. They are selected base on four criteria: addressing both floods and droughts, simple and economical, proved effective in previous studies, and apply Nature-based solutions where appropriate. The criteria facilitate the selection of potential and reasonable measures feasible to be implemented with minimizing environmental transformation and impacts.

The paper provides an understanding of flood and drought impacts on rice cultivation, the coping capacity, and weaknesses of the in-situ mitigation projects at the basin scale. These facts are vital for all stakeholders to realize the actual circumstance in order to search for proper solutions. For the proposed measures, if they are cautiously executed with appropriate pre- and post-project studies and reviews, the flood and drought problems in the area may be reduced or solved sustainably. Moreover, the sizes of farm ponds can be recalculated to be more specific to each area or applied in other basins with single- or multi-crops besides rice, or to cover water uses all year round by adjusting the parameters in the offered equation.