Situaciones de poder Marco Interpretativo 1: Sistema de salud eficiente

Within Quatrevingt-Treize, Hugo plays with certain terms and ideas used during the eighteenth century, but which were of extreme importance and relevance during the Franco-Prussian War and its aftermath. Much as the Marquis de Sade and Louis de Bruno make use of terms like

343 Ibid.

344 Ibid., 225.

345 Miriam Griffin, “Philosophy, Cato, and Roman Suicide,” Greece and Rome, xxxiii, no. 1 (April 1986): 65.

liberté, honnête homme, sans-culottes, and patriote, so too does Hugo bring into play Revolutionary language. While Sade appropriated new terms for his own idiosyncratic ideology, Bruno used the words to express his disdain for the Revolution’s effect on society. Hugo, however, uses the words purely for historical accuracy. When the Convention hurls imprecations at suspected traitors, “Conspirateur ! – Assassin ! – Scélérat ! – Factieux ! – Modéré !” are the terms used. Modéré is, of course, the word that stands out to the modern reader as a term lacking in insult, just as it would to contemporaries of Hugo. However, the terms used must be understood in their historical context, a moment when seeming to be less than committed to Terrorist policies could result in a person’s death.

Foremost among these terms was the idea of la patrie, first introduced novel’s opening scene. At the beginning of the novel, Michelle Fléchard and her children have been discovered by the Bonnet Rouge battalion, a group of soldiers mainly from Paris. The soldiers question the woman about her patrie, a word she obviously does not understand: “Quelle est ta patrie ? – Je ne sais pas. – Comment, tu ne sais pas quel est ton pays ? – Ah, mon pays. Si fait.”³⁴⁶ It is not until she hears the word pays that she is able to answer the question. However, when she gives her answer, Siscoignard, she is told “ce n’est pas une patrie, ça,” to which she replies “c’est mon pays.”³⁴⁷ The dialogue that follows this response shows just how far apart the two concepts of patrie are: “Je comprends, monsieur. Vous êtes de France, moi je suis de Bretagne. – Eh bien?

– Ce n’est pas le même pays. – Mais c’est la même patrie !”³⁴⁸ Her incomprehension of the term portrays a common problem facing the Revolution – the populace of each region thought of itself as belonging to local political structures, rather than a part of France. For Michelle

346 Quatrevingt-Treize, 37.

347 Ibid.

348 Ibid.

Fléchard, pays meant the land of her ancestors, while the Republican soldiers understood patrie as a patriotic term designating all of France, one and indivisible. Hugo sums up this distinction much later in the novel, by stating: “Pays, Patrie, ces deux mots résument toute la guerre de Vendée ; querelle de l’idée locale contre l’idée universelle ; paysans contre patriotes.”³⁴⁹ Although he does not really judge the validity of one idea versus another, Hugo seems to present the peasants in a slightly less favorable light, as good people, but in need of patriotic education.

Michelle Fléchard accepts the differences between her terminology and that of the soldiers as a by-product of their individual backgrounds. The fact that the battalion is from Paris is at first extremely frightening to her: “Vous voyez, madame, nous sommes des Parisiens, dit gracieusement la vivandière. – La femme joignit les mains et cria : O mon Dieu seigneur Jésus !”³⁵⁰ However, given the battalion’s kindness toward her family and her inability to control the events around her, Michelle Fléchard quickly comes to rely on the soldiers of the Bonnet Rouge, despite their ‘foreign’ background and manners. While the peasants’ reactions to Parisians are often humorous, they also provide insight into the longtime divisions within the country. By the late nineteenth century, most of these divisions were well on the way to being eradicated.³⁵¹ The lessening of regional differences did not mean that perfect national unity had been achieved. As mentioned earlier, Paris was widely criticized for its independent actions during the Franco-Prussian War, leading to feelings of distrust and resentment on both sides.

Acknowledging the value of the capital, during both historical and contemporary conflicts, Hugo places the Parisian chapter, “À Paris,” as the pivotal center of the book, between the “En Mer” and “En Vendée” chapters. The city is described as more than just the center of

349 Ibid., 249.

350 Ibid., 40.

351 See Eugen Weber’s seminal work on the subject, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870-1914 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1976).

governmental power; rather, it is seen as the emotional core of the country: “Paris, étant le lieu où bat le cœur des peuples.”³⁵² In addition to the city’s importance to France, its very existence is seen as crucial to civilization in general: “C’est ainsi que Paris va et vient; il est l’énorme pendule de la civilisation”³⁵³ Through grandiose statements like these, Hugo goes to great effort to reinforce the importance of the capital in the minds of his fellow Frenchmen. The significance of the city is also noted in several other Hugolian dramas, including Les Misérables and Notre-Dame de Paris. However, given the city’s contemporary status and its state of disrepair after the War, Hugo was undoubtedly trying to remind people of the city’s patriotic and sentimental importance by giving it a role equal to that of the human characters in the story.

The last notable historical reference in the story comes with the repeated mentions of Prussian invasions. Prussia was indeed a powerful enemy for Revolutionary France, but its overwhelming presence in Quatrevingt-Treize is hard to explain in a mere eighteenth-century context. Prussia was only one of several important nations allied against the First Republic, but apart from England, it is the only country mentioned in the novel as a threat. Historically speaking, Prussia was a very dangerous enemy for France, but the countries’ recent interactions would have resonated strongly in readers, lending an added contemporary urgency to the textual battles.

Quatrevingt-Treize contains many scenes wherein Hugo tries to instruct, either through the tuition given his characters, or through direct lessons for the reader. The characters learn about the new political and moral order from each other and from decrees handed down by the government. Michelle Fléchard and her children are exposed to the Revolution only because of their desperate flight from their home. Gauvain has learned much at the feet of his former tutor,

352 Quatrevingt-Treize, 153.

353 Ibid., 148.

but his lessons in humanity come both from his family and his experiences on the battlefield.

Many characters will learn about their true nature only when confronted with the horror that is war.

As already seen in Chapter One, one of the most powerful teaching tools for the Revolution was terror itself. Fear and indoctrination serve to motivate both those in power and the people they control. In the case of the Marquis de Lantenac, it is the awe and fear he inspires in his subordinates that will allow him to proceed toward his goal. By ruthlessly enforcing a strict discipline and following his own personal code of ethics, he is able to win the devotion of the most unlikely of allies. Early in the novel, Lantenac has been aided by Tellmarch, a beggar who is unaware of the true purpose of his arrival in Bretagne. Although he never lies to the man, Lantenac is careful never to reveal his intent. Tellmarch offers his help, on one condition: “Oui, je vous sauve, monseigneur. […] A une condition. – Laquelle ? – C’est que vous ne venez pas ici pour faire le mal. – Je viens ici pour faire le bien, dit le marquis.”³⁵⁴ Of course, Tellmarch soon learns to his dismay just what the Marquis is capable of; he has ordered the massacre of the entire Bonnet Rouge battalion and their adopted family. Almost everyone is killed, and the children in question have been taken hostage. With deep regret, Tellmarch can only respond to this senseless violence “si j’avais su!”³⁵⁵ Despite any feelings of allegiance Tellmarch might have felt toward the seigneur of his homeland, it is clear that he not only regrets helping him, but that he may well lament not killing him when he had the chance. The cold-hearted terror Lantenac goes on to inflict will showcase the violence of this time throughout the novel.

Interestingly, the most heinous acts of violence are committed not by the Terrorists or the Revolutionary soldiers; rather, it is the Royalists led by Lantenac who will stray the farthest from

354 Ibid., 121.

355 Ibid., 138.

their humanity. Throughout the novel, Hugo highlights the inhumanity of this violence, with chapters entitled “Pas de grâce (mot d’ordre de la Commune), Pas de quartier (mot d’ordre des princes)” and “Titans contre géants.” These titles hint at the similarities between the sides, as well their implacability. “Pas de grâce” and “pas de quartier” are originally naval terms, meaning that no prisoners would be taken and nothing would be ceded, respectively. This chapter serves as the end of the “En mer” section of the novel, making the title particularly a propos. “Titans” carries with it the connotation of fratricide, the exact pain that tore France apart during the Vendean conflict.

In addition to descriptions of moments of great cruelty toward mankind, Hugo relies on the omnipresent importance of spectacle during the Revolution. Many moments of dramatic tension are described in theatrical terms, typical for Hugo, but also a common stylistic device for the Terrorists. From the time the Marquis lands in Bretagne, there is a continuous sound of tocsins preparing the countryside for war. It is eventually learned that the drums are being used to call together his Vendean army, but the same sound will be repeated throughout the book as a call to arms for both sides. The dramatic tension created by the ominous sound always culminates in terrifying silences that mark the prelude to bloody battles.

The central battle of the novel takes place at the Lantenac/Gauvain fortress, La Tourgue.

Through a series of dramatic and sometimes farcical events, the two armies end up at this heavily symbolic location to stage the pivotal battle between the protagonists. By describing in minute detail what events led to this battle and which choices caused the outcome, Hugo is clearly showing the reader how individuals can greatly influence events normally beyond their control.

In a seemingly comic aside, Hugo relates the story of a group of peasants who believe that they

are stopping a convoy with a guillotine. Instead, they find a group of soldiers escorting a long ladder:

Tiens, s’écria le chef, ce n’est pas la guillotine. C’est une échelle.

La charrette avait en effet pour tout chargement une longue échelle. […]

C’est égal, dit le chef, une échelle escortée est suspecte. Cela allait du côté de Parigné.

C’était pour l’escalade de la Tourgue, bien sûr.

Brûlons l’échelle, crièrent les paysans.

Et ils brûlèrent l’échelle.³⁵⁶

This comedy of errors will nearly end in a horrific loss of life. The guillotine the peasants had hoped to stop continued to its destination via another route, arriving safely to continue the executions, including that of Gauvain. The relatively harmless ladder was intended to help the siege at La Tourgue, and its absence nearly costs the Marquis, Gauvain, and the Fléchard children their lives. Through their misguided attempts to help, the peasants are nearly responsible for the deaths of their leader and three innocent children. The moment can easily be read as a parody of Terrorist politics, in which the masses tried to gain control, without truly understanding the consequences of their actions.

A final noteworthy moment of spectacle comes during the descriptions of the Convention in Paris. When recounting the debates between the Montagnards and the Girondins, Hugo captures all the chaos and grandeur associated with the assembly. In a series of short, abrupt sentences at the beginning of the livre troisième, Hugo describes the Convention in awe-filled terms:

Nous approchons de la grande cime.

Voici la Convention.

Le regard devient fixe en présence de ce sommet.

Jamais rien de plus haut n’est apparu sur l’horizon des hommes.

Il y a l’Himalaya et il a la Convention.

La Convention est peut-être le point culminant de l’histoire.³⁵⁷

356 Ibid., 363.

357 Ibid., 192.

By using the pronoun “nous,” Hugo immediately draws the reader in with him to approach the pinnacle of Revolutionary power, the Convention that decided the fate of everyone from the King to Robespierre. The majority of this section serves as a history lesson for the reader, reminding him of just how powerful this group of men was in determining the course of French history. There is almost no dialogue until the very end, when Marat and several others discuss how to proceed with problems of discipline in the Vendée. As a result of their brief discussion, Marat will go to the Committee of Public Safety to demand enforcement of the law that makes clemency toward the enemy punishable by death. It is due to this renewal of the decree that Gauvain will be killed.