Sobrepoblación y hacinamiento

The benefits of PE for children have been widely documented with PE in schools designed to develop the whole child physically, cognitively and affectively and to make a positive impact on the child’s overall quality of life (Gallahue and Cleland

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Donnelly, 2003). This ought to lead to a positive and memorable experience for all children that would encourage lifelong engagement in activity. In a review of how PE teachers describe their lessons, the terms ‘learning’, ‘happy pupils’, ‘busy’ and ‘good’ were high on the list (Bailey, 2007), yet there is research evidence to suggest that the ambitious ideas set out by Bailey et al. (2013) and the descriptions

provided by PE teachers of their view of their lessons are not met for many pupils. Some pupils have been reported in the literature as being alienated from the subject in a variety of ways.

PE literature regarding alienation has largely been divided into the various categories or degree of alienation: alienation associated with boredom (Carlson, 1995; Gibbons and Humbert, 2008); lack of meaning or lack of relevance (Carlson, 1995); teacher behaviour (Carlson, 1995; Martel el al., 2002); low skill or perceived ability (Carlson, 1995; Olafson, 2002; Portman 1995); embarrassment ( Couturier et al., 2005; Olafson,2002) and competitive class environment (Garn and Cothran, 2006; Halas, 2002). Most of these studies investigated pupils in secondary schools with a few investigating junior-age groups or pupils with SEN.

Graham (1995) found that many children did not equate PE with a positive, enjoyable experience. For many PE is a ‘distasteful and discomforting experience’ (p. 479). Several other researchers also found this situation with children reporting that they did not like PE (Carlson, 1995; Olafson, 2002). Children often perceived PE to be lacking in fun, fairness and safety (Gibbons and Humbert, 2008). These

negative feelings towards PE, if allowed to develop, might as pointed out by Hallas (2002) escalate into a phenomenon identified as alienation. Alienation in PE has been outlined by Carlson (1995) as ‘the persistent negative feelings some pupils associate with actively aversive or insufficiently meaningful situations (which pupils often label with the all-purpose adjective boring)’ (p. 467).

The work of Carlson refers to the original work on alienation by Seeman (1959) in that it identifies three of Seeman’s original constructs: powerlessness,

meaninglessness and social isolation. Powerlessness is seen by Carlson as a lack of control, meaninglessness as there being no apparent purpose for PE and it lacking

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personal value and social isolation the feeling of not being involved in a valued activity. Carlson (1995), using interviews with children, revealed that persistent negative behaviours associated with PE included a range of behaviours and coping strategies. These included trying to blend into the background, pretending to be sick or injured, missing school on PE days and a willingness to accept low-grade outcomes rather than participation in lessons.

In a study carried out by Spencer-Caveliere and Rintoul (2012), 10 and 11-year-old children were asked to give their perspectives about the three constructs of alienation: powerlessness, meaninglessness and social isolation. Their findings reflect the previous research, with children reporting that low skill often led to possible negative judgements by their peers, embarrassment, ridicule and not being selected for teams. All these were factors in the non-enjoyment of PE. Boys with low skills were particularly vulnerable.

The children in the above study often spoke of lack of choice leading to frustration, lack of effort and disengagement. A lack of meaning in PE is associated with

boredom and repetition of activities, what Siedentop (2002) described as the same introductory unit again and again. Lack of meaning is also associated with not learning anything and equating PE with not having a relevant meaning in a vocational sense. The children in the Siedentop study associated lack of meaning with activities such as running, whilst Pagnano (2006) stated that if such activities were to be seen as meaningful, the teachers had to employ the best pedagogical practices, such as co-operative learning, critical thinking, pupil-centred learning and better curricular models such as Teaching Games for Understanding (Kirk and MacPhail, 2002) as ways to promote meaning in the PE lesson.

The social factors reported by the Spencer-Cavaliere study centred around the need to have friends as a significant factor in the enjoyment of PE. Conversely rejection was linked to feelings of being left out, which was often associated with having low skill, not being chosen for teams and being ridiculed or bullied.

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The study noted that some of these negative feelings might be the result of ineffective PE lessons that did not promote positive social interactions because of their emphasis on competition or the inclusion of alienating practices such as partner or team selection. This latter issue of team selection is a recurring theme throughout the literature since any peer-selection of teams inevitably means that there must be a last pick, usually the low-skilled child, leading to negative feelings. Carlson (1995) stated low-skilled children felt isolated in their PE class and,

according to Gallahue and Cleland (2003) are not part of lessons’ social interaction.