V. ESTILO
6. Soluciones compositivas aportadas por las fuentes grabadas
Rather than forming islands in a world increasingly affected by severe human impacts, biosphere reserves can become theatres for reconciling people and nature; they can bring knowledge of the past to the needs of the future; and they can demonstrate how to
overcome the problems of the sectoral nature of our institutions. In short, biosphere reserves are much more than just protected areas (The Seville Strategy on Biosphere Reserves, n.d.).
In 1970, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) launched the Man and Biosphere programme to improve the relationship between people and their environment through interdisciplinary research and capacity building; targeting ecological, social and economic dimensions of biodiversity loss (Dogsé, 2004; UNESCO, 2013 and Francis, 2004). Man and Biosphere programmes's goals and objectives are implemented through the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, a method of sharing knowledge, research, education, monitoring and training among the 621 Biosphere Reserves in 117 countries, including 12 transboundary sites.36
Biosphere Reserves are meant to implement conservation with sustainable best practice within a given geographical area; "outpacing traditional confined conservation zones ... combining core protected areas with zones where sustainable development is fostered by local dwellers and enterprises" (UNESCO, 2011b). Serving three functions (see Figure 6), Biosphere Reserves are under national jurisdiction. The overall objective is for each area to share experiences and ideas nationally, regionally, and to promote international cooperation (UNESCO, 2013).
1. Conservation function - contribute to the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species, and genetic variation
2. Development function - foster economic and human development that is socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable.
3. Logistic function - provide support for research, monitoring, education, information exchange related to local, national, and global issues of conservation and development.
Figure 6: Three functions of Biosphere Reserves (UNESCO, 2013)
36 This is the number as of September 10, 2013. See UNESCO (2013) for the most up-to-date numbers:
http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/
Biosphere Reserve areas were chosen as the location for this study for the following reasons:
1. Areas where key participants in governance wish for an area to be designated as UNESCO Biosphere Reserves initiate and complete the application process themselves. Therefore, the applicants must identify with the principles of the Man and Biosphere programme and essentially make a commitment to achieving its objectives of sustainability.
2. Both the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve and the Niagara Escarpment Biosphere Reserve are close to major international cities (Toronto and Cape Town), and both are under pressure as the cities and their associated metropolitan areas expand. The logic follows that, compared to a conservation area that is far from urbanization and other development pressures. The areas would be more susceptible to unsustainable development practices. This creates an interesting tension with the first point (self-identification as an area wishing to implement goals of sustainability).
3. Both the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve and the Niagara Escarpment Biosphere Reserve are internationally known as beautiful, highly desirable areas. This, combined with their proximity to major international cites, positions both areas as being highly desirable to wealthy homebuyers. This would create potential pressure for urban sprawl.
4. Both areas have similar land use patterns with agriculture and wine production (and associated tourism spin offs from this industry) contributing to their economies.
5. Given time lines, these two case studies were reasonable in their scope (meaning not too big or too small).
6. Biosphere designated areas were also chosen because it seemed reasonable that given Biosphere Reserve status, I would find people cognizant of all theoretical frameworks (some focused on resilience, some focused on good governance, etc.).
7. While I looked at the Niagara Escarpment Biosphere Reserve from a general, overall perspective, I selected a specific area for the South African case, simply because the exploratory interviews led in this direction. At the same time, given the socio-economic dynamics of Southern Ontario, the Niagara Escarpment Biosphere Reserve case came to focus predominantly across the so-called Greater Golden Horseshoe.
8. The advantage of selecting cases within Biosphere Reserves is that in such places, if anywhere, the planning decisions should reflect an inclination and capacity to favour
sustainability-serving ends. This is a conservative bias in the sample that makes your findings more powerful.
3.5 Conclusion
This thesis utilizes a qualitative approach in order to understand the factors that influence planning decision-making processes and outcomes in the rural-urban fringe. It derives its empirical evidence from two case studies, the Niagara Escarpment Biosphere Reserve in Canada and the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve in South Africa. I also incorporated classic triangulation methods typical of qualitative studies. Next I filtered this information through an analytical framework (see Figure 5) whose design was derived from key elements in the literatures described in chapter two.
The next four chapters are the result of the application of the analytical framework to the two case studies. In each of the next two chapters (Chapters 4 and 5), I present the case studies, addressing the question regarding decision-making dynamics at the rural-urban fringe. These two chapters apply the problem-solving component of the analytical framework (Steps 1 and 2: governance and
management). Following this, Chapters 6 and 7 apply the critical theory component of the analytical framework (Steps 3 and 4: critical political economy and resilience thinking) to each of the case studies. Chapter 8 discusses the results and Chapter 9 concludes the thesis.
Chapter 4
Governance and management of the rural-urban fringe: Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve, with special attention to
Stellenbosch Municipality and Jamestown.
4.1 Introduction
The aim of this chapter is to address the primary research question regarding decision-making dynamics at the rural-urban fringe. Specifically, the chapter reviews the problem-solving component of the analytical framework by beginning with an overview of governance structures before
discussing the management portion of problem-solving theory. First, I repeat the guiding questions articulated in Section 2.9. The questions for step 1 (the Governance component of the analytical framework) include: (i) what is the governance framework; (ii) what laws, policies and procedures are in place; (iii) is the process participatory; (iv) is the process transparent; (v) are actors accountable;
and (vi) when conflict arises is there an effective dispute resolution mechanism? The questions for step 2 (Management) include: (i) what are the land-use plans in place; (ii) how is the situation
managed; (iii) are the goals of the plan realized in practice; (iv) what are the stakeholders perspectives about the situation; (v) how is the situation being handled (monitoring, evaluation, knowledge
gathering, etc.)?
To begin, an overview of the Cape Winelands study area is provided.
4.2 Step 1: Governance: The Cape Winelands study area
4.2.1 The Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve
The Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve is located in the Cape Winelands District and the Overberg District Municipalities of the Western Cape Province (see Figure 7). In Figure 7, the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve area is coloured in red at the bottom right hand corner of the image.
Figur
Municipality, 2010). It is expected that climate change will cause an increase in summer temperatures and a reduction of rainfall (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2010).
Poverty levels have decreased from 30.9 per cent in 2001 to 26.1 per cent in 2011. Afrikaans is the first language spoken by 96.5 per cent of the people who live there, with English being the first language of 2.7 per cent. The Cape Winelands has a high Gini coefficient at 0.59, indicating extreme income inequality, and the Municipality of Stellenbosch, is also at 0.59 (Cape Winelands District, 2012).37 Only 42 per cent of the population has been identified as economically active (Cape Winelands District, 2012). Housing for low-income individuals has been identified as the greatest challenge for the District at 10 to 13 per cent (or 40,000 units) of the Provincial Housing backlog (Cape Winelands District, 2012). There are also 117 informal settlements, housing approximately 36,363 units averaging 71 units per hectare (Cape Winelands District, 2012). The availability and location of land, bulk services, and legal processes and “concrete strategies to deal with evictions and capacity constraints” are significant issues impacting housing provision (Cape Winelands District, 2012, p. 39).
4.2.2 Stellenbosch Municipality
Stellenbosch Municipality is the third largest municipality in the Cape Winelands District; its population grew 3.54 per cent faster than other municipalities (at 2.8 per cent) between 1995 and 2004 (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2007). See Figure 8 for an indication of the exact area of Stellenbosch Municipality.
37
Figurre 8: Location of Stellenbbosch Municiipality withinn the Cape WWinelands Biiosphere Reseerve
Two-thirds of all South Africa billionaires live in Stellenbosch Municipality and the corporate headquarters of many large companies such as British American Tobacco Company and Distell, and municipal offices and facilities are located there (Study Participant #8). This draws people who are looking for work to the area, especially low and unskilled labour (Study Participant
#8). The influx of people ultimately leads to more land invasions, and informal settlements are appearing throughout the area (Study Participant #8). Stellenbosch’s university is expected to double in size in the next 10 years and this has a considerable impact on affordable housing (Study
Participant #8).
Manufacturing, trade, finance and communication services are other main contributors to the economy (Cape Winelands District, 2012). Stellenbosch Municipality contains a large part of the critically endangered and endangered systems that comprises the Cape Floristic Region (the fynbos biome). Using the guidelines of the National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment (2004), nearly a quarter of the Municipality is classified as “Endangered Ecosystems”, meaning it has lost significant amounts of the original habitat (Polity, 2013).
4.2.3 Jamestown
Jamestown is located at geographical coordinates 33.979°S 18.848°E, along Regional Road 44 (or R44), between Stellenbosch and Somerset West within the Cape Winelands District Municipality, South Africa (and it is also located within the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve). See Figure 9 for the location of Jamestown.
Figur
Changes i
Figur
Figure 122: Jamestownn 1993 Jamestownn
Figur
must first be discussed with a Planning Official so that Council can advise on the type and extent of advertising (this includes whether or not Council or the individual will advertise; as well as any fees involved, the process, and approximate time frames involved) (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2014).
Development applications for large-scale projects are first reviewed by a committee of specialists from various departments within the Municipality of Stellenbosch (including
transportation, engineering, planning, etc.). This committee works with the applicant to ensure that all aspects of the application are completed accurately. When the committee is satisfied, the applicant officially submits the development proposal to the planning department. The planners review the application before it is made public via newspapers, online, and other public notices.
The applicant’s file is kept at the Municipal building so that members of the general public can review all details (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2014). The end date for public comments is also indicated in the file. Individuals who are impacted or who wish to make a comment about the
application must do so before the closing date indicated in the file (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2014).
People who cannot read or write can ask for their comments to be transcribed by an individual at the Municipality (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2014). Citizens who wish to comment must do so within a minimum of 30 days (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2014). This can be extended if the Planning Director feels it is appropriate (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2014).
After receiving the comments, the applicant must respond to the citizen concerns and comments within 60 days or an extended time if indicated by Council (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2014). This process continues and exchanges related to concerns and responses can go back and forth between the public and the developer until all matters are settled, or until the developer simply gives up and withdraws the application. All development applications must adhere to the various planning laws at all scales of government. Development proposals are often written to address and show compatibility with the various laws, which are discussed below.
After receiving all of the feedback, Council makes a decision on the application (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2014). If the applicant does not respond to citizen’s comments, Council will make a decision without the applicant’s feedback (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2014).
All development applications must conform to Stellenbosch Municipality’s Integrated Development Plan and Spatial Development Framework. Development applications must also conform to all Provincial and National planning policies (there are many and they are described in detail in Appendix C).
4.3.2 Municipality of Stellenbosch Spatial Development Framework The Municipality of Stellenbosch’s Spatial Development Framework indicates and outlines strategies and policies to achieve a specified desired form (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2012). The November 2012 Spatial Development Framework advocates moving away from “unplanned informal settlements and low-density suburbs located far from transport nodes” because they place unnecessary pressure on the ecosystem and cause social and economic consequences associated with an auto-dependent spatial layout (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2012, p. 5). Rather, “it is suggested that higher density developments be allowed within town limits, and that a strict urban edge be defined and enforced to put an end to low density urban sprawl” (Stellenbosch Municipality, 2012, p. 5). The plan promotes mixed housing options located firstly along commuter rail lines and secondly at road intersections.
Jamestown and De Zalze have been identified as a development node in the current Spatial Development Framework.
4.3.3 Municipality of Stellenbosch Integrated Development Plan The Municipality’s Integrated Development Plan (IDP) is the main implementation agent of the National Reconstruction and Development Programme. The Integrated Development Plan is renewed every five years and is developed via a participatory process where municipal officials and politicians consult citizens in its drafting. It also informs planning and the Municipal budget (see Cash and Swatuk, 2010 for a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of Integrated Development Planning within the Municipality of Stellenbosch).
Development applications within the Cape Winelands District Municipality and Stellenbosch Municipality must also adhere to the Provincial Spatial Development Framework (the details of this are also outlined in Appendix C).
4.3.4 Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve Spatial Development Plan Development applications made within Stellenbosch Municipality do not have to comply with the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve Spatial Development Plan.
In late the 2000s, the Cape Winelands District Municipality appointed Dennis Moss Partnerships (DMP) to draft the Spatial Development Plan for the Cape Winelands Biosphere
Reserve. The detailed purpose of the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve Spatial Development Plan is outlined in Appendix E, but ultimately
It
The Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve Spatial Development Plan (2009) stresses the environmental and quality of life consequences of development pressure that the Cape Winelands must deal with. It also discusses the importance of economic growth (and specifically refers to the South African Constitution Act 108 of 1996) to be “developmentally oriented”. Therefore, the Cape Winelands Spatial and Development Plan proposes the need for both economic and environmental development, stating:
The Biosphere Reserve builds on the premise that development can serve as a primary economic driver that unlocks funds to support, in a meaningful and sustainable manner, economic growth, social development and environmental rehabilitation. The Biosphere Reserve will furthermore provide a coherent framework for the sustainable use of natural resources in order to enhance the key economic sectors of the District and, consequently, contribute to the eradication of poverty and inequality as a core obstacle to a stable and prosperous future in the region (Cape Winelands, 2009, p. 8).
This is an important characteristic of the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve Spatial Development Plan because it promotes development as a method of fulfilling broader economic and social goals. Also, it is based on a principle of bioregional planning, which refers to the “‘matching’
of human settlement and land-use patterns with the parameters of ecological systems, and the planning, design and development of the human-made environment within these parameters in a manner that ensures environmental sustainability” (Cape Winelands, 2009, p. 59).39 A key aspect of the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve Spatial Development Plan (2009) is that it stresses the need for government and stakeholders to cooperate and coordinate their activities.
The municipalities within the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve area must first approve the Biosphere Reserve Spatial Development Plan. This involves an endorsement by Council, and then the Provincial Government must approve it. If both of these steps occur, then Council must apply the conditions of the Cape Winelands Spatial Development Plan. Municipal Councils can also approve documents as policy, but then it is not a regulation; it is simply a Council policy or an internal policy, meaning that it can be deviated from if required (Study Participant #6).
At the time this research was conducted, planners at Stellenbosch Municipality were adamant that they had their own Spatial Development Framework40 that would dictate land use within the
39 See Appendix E for characteristics of bioregional planning.
40 Stellenbosch Council approved their Spatial Development Framework in November 2012.
Municipality and they would not apply the requirements laid out in the Cape Winelands Spatial Development Framework. The Province of the Western Cape and the Municipality of Stellenbosch did not approve the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve Spatial Development Plan but the Cape Winelands District Municipality has approved it.41
South Africa’s Supreme Court recently determined that even an unapproved draft document has status if it followed a participatory process, according to the Constitution.
4.3.5 Dispute resolution
Citizens have the opportunity to appeal an undesirable planning decision on a particular plan. They appeal directly to the Municipality, and the applicant has an opportunity to respond at this point. If unsatisfied with the Council decision, individuals can appeal to the provincial government.
Ultimately, the Minister can make a final decision on an appeal.
4.4 Step 2: Management
4.4.1 Implementation: planning in practice
In this section I present the current situation as it pertains to decision-making around development in Jamestown as told to me by the study participants (including councillors, planners from the private and public sectors, and community leaders).
Multiple planners who work for the Municipality (Study Participants #2, 3, 5) told me that what happens in the overall municipality, region, province, etc. all affect what happens at the rural-urban fringe (of Jamestown).42 In other words, one cannot consider Jamestown without considering the broader area. This is why I begin this section describing land dynamics within Stellenbosch’s urban edge.
4.4.1.1 Changing land market dynamics within Stellenbosch
Influential factors within the urban edge of Stellenbosch (e.g. growing population, student accommodation needs and land market behavior) affect expansion into the rural-urban fringe.
41 Cape Winelands District Planners have recommended that Stellenbosch Municipality consider it when assessing applications (District Municipality Planner, 2012).
42 In fact, as soon as I sat down in one interviewee’s office, he said to me “Before you can consider anything about Jamestown, you need to understand what is happening within Stellenbosch and the broader
We need to think about the impact that new developments have on the broader Municipality of Stellenbosch (Study Participant #4).
An important factor that affects housing prices is the student market.43 Some parents purchase homes for their children to live in while in university, increasing overall prices in Stellenbosch town.
This, combined with already high housing prices due to the wealth in Stellenbosch, makes it very unaffordable for many people (including professionals) to live within the built boundary.44 For this reason, 75 per cent of Stellenbosch workers commute from Cape Town and nearby towns such as Kuils River.
The current density within the urban edge is 6-7 units/hectare on average, with 3-7 units/hectare in affluent areas and 50 units/hectare in low-income areas. The Provincial Spatial Development Framework calls for 25 units/hectare as an overall target, including flats, and a planning firm identified locations for 17,000 units within the current envelope. This indicates that there is plenty of space for densification within the current boundaries. However, planners are competing with the market because the Municipality has its own vision of where they want to geographically grow while the influential players in the market are trying to dictate direction and push growth in a different direction.
4.4.1.2 Demographic dynamics
There is an increase in informal settlements that generally emerge beside existing townships
There is an increase in informal settlements that generally emerge beside existing townships