Sostenibilidad de la propuesta

Although there are several studies detailing author insights, corresponding insights from the publishing world rarely find their way into the public domain due to competitiveness and the need for secrecy (Littlejohn, 1992, Masuhara, 1998, Wala, 2003b). In my review of this sub-section, I focus on studies that have contributed to building a publishing perspective; albeit not necessarily sourced primarily from publishers. I have framed these insights using Masuhara’s (1998) stages of production. In her discussion of opportunities for reflecting teachers’ needs and wants at the production stage, Masuhara outlines six components of production:

planning, drafting, evaluation, piloting, production and post-production. The first four are within the scope of the present study, and I adopt this outline in my thematization of the publishing sub-component of production.

Planning

Publishers need to visualize the entire project and allow for all the stages of production, and this becomes more likely when they are not working to externally imposed timeframes. However, where circumstances are less than ideal, Hayes (2002) proposes effective planning of the whole book, detailed specification of each activity, adherence to pedagogic considerations, and use of simple publishing tools (charts) which enable participants know where they are within the plan and appreciate the contribution of other departments to the process.

Feedback is a necessary component in the process of textbook production. At the planning level, there is need to allow for time and resources to ensure feedback is incorporated in the materials, and this may require pre-writing research involving teachers, marketing representatives and students (Richards, 1995; Wala, 2003b). In addition, publishers constantly gather market information from users of their own and others’ products, and keep a “weather eye” on trends in applied linguistics (Donovan, 1998). Because of the factors surrounding adoption of innovation (Section 2.6.1), publishers may eventually settle for formats that are not vastly different from what the market is familiar with. “The tendency…is for publishers to look for materials that fall under the umbrella of acceptability yet have a twist or pizzazz that makes them marketable” (Mares, 2003, p. 133).

Drafting

Masuhara (1998) cites materials writers and publishers as the agents involved in drafting. Information from the planning stage is collated and fed back to editors. Editors collaborate with authors to revise existing, or create new teaching materials, which take the users’ feedback into account. The writing process (Section 2.4.2.1) results in drafts, into which the publisher has input.

Wala (2003a) reports on coursebooks published in Singapore in 2001, which required MoE approval, and were subject to teacher selection. She explains the editor’s crucial mediating role between the authors’ content and its realization in the final product. This makes the editor’s location between publisher and authors a sensitive one. Bautista (1995) observes that it is important to have a “development editor” on the team to help in structuring the textbook and problem solving, while Mares (2003), also acknowledging the demanding role of the editor, observes that editors may be highly mobile, and a good editor is “invaluable”. Indeed, in some instances, the editor’s input is so substantial that, to all intents and purposes, they may be considered the authors of the work (Gray, 2007).

Evaluation and Piloting

Evaluation

Pre-use evaluation can be an involving process. Masuhara (1998) cites criterion- referenced evaluation as a production process which can be carried out by ‘readers’ or publishers. Alred & Thelen (1993) indicate that the textbook review and development process can be as demanding as that of many journals. They note that authors and editors seek academics for review purposes and when refining the scope

of textbooks they take into consideration the needs and expectations of professionals who will use the materials.

Roberts (1996) views materials evaluation as a “total process” from pre- to post- publication. This process should take into account ethical issues of piloting for prolonged periods among learners, and the challenges of piloting competing materials for teachers, who may already be overburdened. In the consumption moment, I review other studies that focus on evaluation from a teacher-consumer perspective (Section 2.5.1.2).

Piloting

In Masuhara’s (1998) framework, piloting involves publishers, teachers and learners, but several reports indicate that it may be even more inclusive than this. Barnard & Randall (1985), who contrast and evaluate two textbook trials in Oman, observe that textbook decisions are not entirely driven by an evaluation process, since political and economic motives also play a role. They advocate a qualitative approach to trialling involving close participation of authors, teachers and MoE personnel. In the absence of authors, a Teacher’s Guide should be included in the piloting package (Donovan, 1998).

The ideal period for piloting is a school year (Donovan, 1998). Payment or other incentives may be offered in exchange for detailed reports, and personal support and contact with participating teachers ought to be maintained. Since this is not always practical, publishers often engage in partial piloting, especially in a competitive market. Popovici & Bolitho (2003) report on the value of repeated piloting, albeit

with a diminishing sample over time due to competition, logistical and financial reasons.

Jolly & Bolitho (1998) and Wala (2003b) highlight the importance of incorporating feedback loops between end-users of materials and materials developers. For Wala, such loops should include curriculum developers and other stakeholders in materials development. The schedule for submission of materials for approval to the MoE has implications on the process of materials development in terms of the number and kind of stages the materials undergo, and the rigour and quality checks that are applied, therefore MoE involvement is facilitative during piloting. Teachers must also be knowledgeable about new trends, willing to cooperate in piloting, and provide detailed feedback.

Production and Post Production

The two final stages in Masuhara’s (1998) framework involve designer input, sales and marketing, which are generally beyond the scope of the present study; however, they are important components of the production moment. They influence user perceptions of the textbook, hence its ‘identity’ (Section 2.3.2). The first point of contact between the producer’s vision of and for their product and the consumer is likely to be the blurb. The blurb is a bridge between what can be revealed from a reading and interpretation of textbook contents and what the producers would like potential consumers to know or believe about it. “The blurb serves to “label and highlights the key ideas underpinning the content of a textbook” (Basturkman, 1999).

Among the challenges of materials preparation that Gonzales (1995) noted in the Philippines were lack of publisher funds, designer expertise and poor marketing

units, which created no change in consumer taste and perpetuated familiar but less innovative materials. While authors are well placed to train marketing teams to promote the materials, a product cannot be sustained on ‘hype’. “…hype can encourage a teacher or school to try a course once, but no amount of hype can encourage the same course to be readopted. It has to work, at least in the eyes of the school” (Bell & Gower, 1998, p. 119).

Hayes (2002) points to the need to professionalize the book development process, noting that tight schedules may compromise quality in several ways, including limiting chances of getting an overview of the whole book, increasing possibility of typographical errors, reducing probability of completing illustrations on time, and various design issues such as consistency in typeface and headings.

Following production and selection by schools, textbooks enter another phase in of ‘existence’ in which they are put to use by the intended recipients. In the circuit of culture, this is the consumption moment; the terminology is reflective of the origin of the circuit of culture in explicating the Walkman, a commercial product, and not here indicative of a commodified view of the textbook and education.