SUBSECRETARÍA DE CALIDAD

While the theoretical approaches provide a cognitive and interpretive framework within which the study and analysis of sema takes place, this methodology section explains the means by which the data was obtained, collected and analysed.

The first step consisted of reviewing and analysing the existing literature on the subject primarily in English and Thai language but also to a lesser extent in French and German.

In the absence of a comprehensive and all inclusive database of sema and their locations the second step was to create such a database by carrying out extensive survey work in the Khorat Plateau. After this was completed, data obtained from the review of literature was also integrated into the database arrived at from survey work. Finally the data was analysed in the light of the rationale for the thesis and research questions posed. An explanation and account of the fieldwork techniques, extent and methods used for creating and analysing the sema database are discussed below. A review of the existing literature on sema is given in Chapter 3.6.

1.4.1 Fieldwork Survey Area and Extent

Fieldwork consisted of extensive survey work throughout the Khorat Plateau and covered all the provinces of northeast Thailand, with the exception of Mukdahan where to date no sema have been recorded or discovered. Vientiane city and Vientiane

province of Laos where sema have recently come to light were also included in the fieldwork. A number of sites were also surveyed in central Thailand and one further site, Bam Gre on Phnom Kulen, located in Cambodia was also visited. The majority of sema are still located at or near their original sites, however in some cases they have been moved to museums or local temples (see tables A1a, A2 and A4). Therefore, the survey work consisted of visiting the museums and sites themselves or the locations they had been moved to, usually either local temples, shrines or sometimes villagers’ homes.

This thesis initially aimed to survey every sema location within the Khorat Plateau, however, it soon became apparent that this would not be possible for a number of reasons. Initial estimates from the review of the available sources and literature compiled before fieldwork commenced arrived at a figure of approximately fifty sites

within Thailand while the general consensus among scholars estimated the number of sema to be in the mid-hundreds. No literature at that time was available on sema in Laos.

However, during the course of fieldwork, various other sites became known through a number of sources that were not accessible in the period before the survey work commenced, including information from local people, museum records, websites, correspondences with archaeologists working in Thai archaeology and research being carried out in Laos. This resulted in a doubling of the number of known sites from in the fifties to 111. Coupled with this was the amount of sema recorded, over 1200, far in excess of previous estimates.

In total, 116 sites were surveyed, 110 in the Khorat Plateau, five in central Thailand and one in Cambodia over a period dating from October 2007-November 2008. This

resulted in the recording of 1289 sema in total. Due to the timescale allowed for fieldwork and budgetary considerations, it was not possible to visit all the locations in person. In total 80 out of the 116 sites were visited. However, information about sites not visited was obtained either from site reports, academic publications or

correspondences with other researchers. Furthermore, sema locations are still being discovered as can be seen in a recent 2010 newspaper article (Matichon Daily 11^th January 2010, 13) making fieldwork in a sense, an open-ended affair. This thesis, does however, represent the most comprehensive survey, database and analysis of Dvaravati sema to date.

In regards to concerns over a possible sampling bias, there is always the issue of whether more archaeological material gets discovered in areas of denser modern

occupation as opposed to remoter areas. However, in terms of the Khorat Plateau this is not particularly the case. Important sites such as Muang Fa Daed, Phu Phra Baht, Bahn Fai and Bahn Korn Sawan for instance are all in rural areas with relatively low

population densities. Furthermore, the increase in agricultural activity and settlement of land previous unoccupied in this region over the past forty years in particular, means that most, if not all remote locations have been occupied. Survey work over the past fifty years throughout the Khorat Plateau carried out by the FAD (1959, 1972, 1973, 1986, 1990) has also removed many of the possibilities of sampling bias as has the relatively new ability to view remote areas using Google Earth or similar applications.

1.4.2 Fieldwork Methods, Recording Techniques, Organisation of Database and Analysis

Sema were recorded by first assigning each stone a specific number prefixed by the upper case letter ‘S’ and recording its present location and site from which it was from.

After that each sema was measured and its dimensions, type, style, artwork or lack of, and material was recorded. A brief sketch and description of each sema was then made.

Finally each sema was photographed at high resolution by a digital SLR camera.⁶ Next the amount and types of sema at each site were documented. Then the characteristics of the site were recorded, including details such as the type of site (moated, earthen mound, etc.), associated material present (such as stupas or other religious artefacts). Each site was given a specific number prefixed by the uppercase letter ‘L’ and longitudinal and latitudinal data was obtained through the use of a handheld GPS device⁷ and the site characteristics were then further analysed using Google Earth and Google Maps (www.googlemaps.com).

The fieldwork allowed for the compilation of a database that incorporated and cross-referenced individual sema details with a site database and a photographic record (see Appendix 1 and DVD). Furthermore, the information was imputed into and analysed using an ArcGIS software application.⁸ This allowed for the creation of accurate digital maps which facilitated the analysis of various data-sets in an integrative and multi-scaler framework. For instance, in regard to the analysis of the distribution of sema and sema locations, it allowed for the factoring in of other datasets such as the relationship of moated sites to sema locations which was achieved by superimposing one dataset over another (see figure 4.24). Various other forms of analysis were carried out such as the distribution of sema by groups, clusters, art styles, types and in situ locations.

As stated above, in this thesis sema numbers are prefixed by the upper case letter ‘S’, for example S1, S23 etc. Sites are prefixed by the upper case letter ‘L’, for example L1, L40 etc. When the name of a site is mentioned in the first instance of each chapter the       

6 A Canon EOS 350D Digital was used with photographs taken at high resolution.

7Magellan eXplorist 100.

8 ESRI ArcGIS 9.3 Desktop. Basemap data for Thailand courtesy of Marc Souris, IRD, http://www.star.ait.ac.th/~souris/thailand.htm

site number shall be given after it in brackets but will be omitted in each subsequent instance, for example, Muang Fa Daed (L1). Site location numbers (L) and sema numbers (S) are listed in tables A1a/A1b and A2 respectively and can be consulted in order to acquire relevant data about the site or sema in question. Table A2 also provides information in regard to sema dimensions, type, material, present location and motifs or artwork present. Table A1a on the other hand, gives data regarding individual sites’

exact location, including village, sub-district, district and province as well as longitude and latitude. Table A1b gives the same information but in Thai language and script.⁹

1.5 Summary

This chapter has reviewed the rationale for the thesis, its research questions, theoretical and methodological approaches. It has outlined the structure of the thesis, as well as explaining the extent of the fieldwork and recording techniques. In doing so the chapter provides a summary of the dissertation as a whole as well as locating the thesis within the broader discipline of archaeology.

9Due to the inconsistencies and difficulties arising from the transliteration of Thai script, it is strongly recommended that anyone wishing to visit a given site listed in table A1 use the Thai version. This will greatly alleviate problems arising from obtaining directions or searching maps. It should be added that some of the sites listed are extremely remote and not always that well known even by local inhabitants of the particular area in question. This again is a strong reason to use the Thai as opposed to English language table.

Chapter 2