Suelos de Parcelas

For nearly 2,000 years most Jews have lived as a minority people amid a majority professing another religion. Although there are exceptions, they have usually lived in Muslim or Christian host societies. The experiences of Jews in Christ-ian societies have ranged from peaceful and pros-perous to uncertain and violent, but genuine dialogue has only occurred recently, when Jews began to speak with Christians at the highest lev-els of the Catholic Church and the World Council of Churches.

As rabbinic Judaism developed in the early centuries of the Common Era, so too did CHRIS

-TIANITY, which spread quickly throughout the world after the Emperor Constantine made it the official religion of the Roman Empire (see ROME).

Though Christianity had originally emerged from Judaism, by that time people of Jewish ethnicity constituted only a small minority of church mem-bers, and Christian teachings had moved far from

their Jewish beginnings, especially concerning the divinity of Jesus and the Triune nature of God.

Once in power, Christianity suppressed pagan worship completely, but Judaism was allowed to exist. However, a pattern of persecution soon emerged that would last for centuries.

In the post-Constantine era, Roman persecu-tion of Christianity ceased, but Roman strictures against Judaism remained in force. Christianity soon became the dominant religion throughout the Roman Empire and adjacent areas. The early Christians defined themselves in part by their dif-ference from Jews. Based on the New Testament they considered themselves the new elect of God, in place of the Jews, who, they believed, had rejected JESUS OF NAZARETH, their savior and the son of God, and contributed to his crucifixion and death. Prior to Vatican II in the 20th century, most Christian churches did not discourage the belief that the Jews had killed Jesus, and were adamant in stating that unconverted Jews could not be saved.

This ANTI-JUDAISM bred violent, dangerous emotions from the start. Living as a minority reli-gion in a Christian world, Jewish communities accepted their fate as part of the consequence of

EXILE.

Periods of Christian religious enthusiasm have often proved difficult for Jews. In the 11th century Christians on their way to the Crusades and back attacked and destroyed many defenseless Jewish communities in their path. In the 13th and again in the 15th century Jews were required to formally defend the TALMUD against Christian scholars in widely publicized DISPUTATIONS, which were accompanied by rioting and anti-Jewish violence.

On the other hand, periods of peace for Jews living under Christian rule often depended on the benevolence of a particular king or bishop. When the Christians recaptured much of SPAINfrom the Muslims in the 13th century, for example, the Jews were welcomed and encouraged to help rebuild commerce and industry. Sometimes a king would even be admonished by a pope for allowing Jews to exercise power over Christians, such as in K 90 Christian-Jewish relations

the case of Alfonso VI in 1081. Years later, Alfonso X incorporated this idea into his law code, declar-ing that “No Jew may ever hold an esteemed posi-tion or public office so as to be able to oppress any Christian in any way whatsoever.” Even so, Jews did hold some positions of authority right up until the EXPULSION in 1492, but the legal ambiguity always cast a shadow on their status.

After a while, a frighteningly consistent pat-tern emerged in Jewish life. Jews would be asked to settle in a Christian land in order to bring com-merce or other needed skills, then expelled at a later date, and then asked back again (see EN

-GLAND; FRANCE; GERMANY; PORTUGAL).

Jews were often forced to live in walled enclaves called GHETTOS. In RUSSIA, this took the form of a geographic area called the PALE OFSET

-TLEMENT. The Jews there did not interact with Russian culture nor learn the Russian language, instead speaking their own tongue, YIDDISH. Even this bleak picture did have some beneficial ele-ments. The Jews were often left alone to govern themselves in a semiautonomous system, as long as they continued to pay taxes to their host society.

The community was called a kahal or kehillah (see

KAHAL, KEHILLAH), and it often allowed for a rich cultural and religious life.

The modern period created an interesting dilemma for the Jewish communities of Europe.

With the rise of nationalism and the development of the idea of equality, many Jews left their iso-lated communities and actively sought EMANCIPA

-TION, using the ideals of the ENLIGHTENMENT to make their case. They did win a degree of equality in most European countries, sometimes at the price of ASSIMILATION. Nevertheless, ANTISEMITISM

steadily increased, culminating in the HOLOCAUST, which decimated the European Jewish popula-tion, assimilated or not. Neither the Catholic nor the Protestant communities as a whole assisted the Jews during the Holocaust, and relations between Christians and Jews have been somewhat strained under the pressure of this reality.

The Vatican II church council in 1965 drasti-cally changed the perspective of the Catholic

Church toward the Jews, and the church has con-tinued to work toward reconciliation and better ties. In 1970 the Catholic-Jewish Liaison Commit-tee was established to encourage mutual under-standing and cooperation on common issues, such as social justice. In 1986, Pope John Paul II visited a synagogue in Rome, the first such visit in the history of the papacy. There the pope con-demned antisemitism and spoke about respect between Catholics and Jews.

Jewish groups also began dialogue with Protes-tant churches, especially those affiliated with the World Council of Churches (WCC). Progress here was slower, as the Protestant movement is divided into hundreds of separate denominations, many of which have a commitment to evangelism toward all non-Christians, including Jews. One landmark in that ongoing process of dialogue occurred at a meeting of the WCC’s Committee on the Church and the Jewish People in Sweden in November of 1988. A document was formulated that agreed on the following principles: (1) The covenant of God with the Jewish people remains valid; (2) anti-semitism and all forms of contempt for Judaism are to be repudiated; (3) the living tradition of Judaism is a gift of God; (4) coercive proselytism directed toward Jews is incompatible with Christ-ian faith; and (5) Jews and ChristChrist-ians bear a com-mon responsibility as witnesses to God’s righteousness and peace in the world. The com-mittee also recognized the State of ISRAEL, acknowledged spiritual concepts shared by Chris-tians and Jews, clarified that the Jews should not be held responsible for the death of Jesus, and expressed sadness at Christian participation in Jewish suffering. In July 2004, however, the main-line Presbyterian Church (USA) endorsed a pro-posed divestment of companies that operate in Israel, marking a severe rupture in the relationship between Presbyterian Protestants and world Jewry.

Dialogue with evangelical Christians, those rep-resented by the World Evangelical Alliance, has been much slower, as their dedication to world evangelism has included ministries focused prima-rily on the Jewish community. At the same time, Christian-Jewish relations 91 J

some dialogue has been possible, building on the evangelical community’s strong support for Israel.

Many societies dedicated to dialogue between Jews and Christians exist in Europe, such as the German Council for Jewish-Christian Cooperation and the Jewish-Christian Brotherhood in France. In Israel there are many groups that focus on Jewish-Christian dialogue, including the Interfaith Com-mittee, the AMERICAN JEWISH COMMITTEE office in JERUSALEM, the Ecumenical Institute, the Ecumeni-cal Discussion Center for Students in Jerusalem, and the Inter-religious Group in TELAVIV.

The situation of Jews in America has always been vastly different from that in Europe. While suffering some discrimination in the early colonies, Jews soon found their niche in a plural-istic American society. Although there are strains of antisemitism among individuals in the UNITED

STATES, it is not inherent in American Christian religious institutions. The United States is host to a vast number of organizations dedicated to improving the relationship between Christians and Jews, such as the National Conference of Community and Justice (formerly the National Conference of Christians and Jews), and the Cen-ter for Christian-Jewish Understanding at Sacred Heart University, which has many sister organiza-tions in other Catholic schools such as Boston College.

American Jews are still a minority in a larger consciously Christian culture, but that culture is far more pluralistic and secular than it has been in Europe in the past. Most Jews feel comfortable in the United States; sociologist Will Herberg pub-lished a volume entitled Protestant-Catholic-Jew in the 1950s, suggesting that Jews had become part of mainstream America. At that time, the idea of a

“Judeo-Christian heritage” became popular in the United States. This idea has opened doors to dis-cussions and dialogue between Christians and Jews that is unique to the contemporary period.

Many urban and suburban American communi-ties have active fellowships of clergy, whereby rab-bis, priests, and ministers share in fellowship and cooperative values.

Further reading: Jack Bemporad and Michael Shevack, Our Age: The Historic New Era of Christian-Jewish Understanding (Hyde Park, N.Y.: New City Press, 1996);

Jeremy Cohen, ed., Essential Papers on Judaism and Christianity in Conflict: From Late Antiquity to the Refor-mation (New York: New York University Press, 1991);

Andrew Greeley and Jacob Neusner, Common Ground: A Priest and a Rabbi Read Scripture Together (Cleveland:

Pilgrim Press, 1996); Jacob Katz, Exclusiveness and Tol-erance: Studies in Jewish-Gentile Relations in Medieval and Modern Times (London: Oxford University Press, 1961); Ellis Rivkin, What Crucified Jesus? Messianism, Pharisaism and the Development of Christianity (New York: UAHC Press, 1997).

chuppah

Jewish couples are required to get married under a wedding canopy called the chuppah. Traditionally, the chuppah is made from a TALLIT, or prayer shawl.

However, in modern times, the chuppah is often a beautifully decorated piece of cloth held up by four poles. The chuppah may be free-standing or held by attendants above the bride and groom. Tradition teaches that the chuppah is a symbol of the home the new married couple will be creating. As it is open on all four sides but covered on the top, it provides shelter while at the same time remaining open to visitors. This vision is reminiscent of Abra-ham and Sarah and their value of round-the-clock hospitality illustrated in the TORAHin Genesis 18.

The chuppah also metaphorically represents God’s

“Tabernacle of Peace.”

Further reading: Rita Milos Brownstein, Jewish Weddings:

A Beautiful Guide to Creating the Wedding of Your Dreams (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2003); Anita Diamant, The New Jewish Wedding (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2001); Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures (Philadelphia and Jerusalem: The Jewish Publication Society, 1985).

chutzpah

Chutzpah is the Yiddish term for “nerve” and is used to describe someone with the courage to say K 92 chuppah

or do something that will not be well received.

Depending on its use, it can have either a positive or a negative connotation. As with many Yiddish words, no English equivalent has the same mean-ing or emotional import. Thus, the word chutzpah has entered into the English language and can be found in English-language dictionaries, in main-stream television programs, and on the streets of New York City.

Further reading: Gene Bluestein, Anglish/Yinglish: Yid-dish in American Life and Literature (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998); Fred Kogos, The Dictionary of Popular Yiddish Words, Phrases, and Proverbs (New York:

Citadel Trade, 2000); Jackie Mason, How to Talk Jewish (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991).