2.4. REVISIÓN BIBLIOGRÁFICA
2.4.2. Etiología de las conductas autoagresivas en adolescentes
2.4.2.1. SUICIDIO
ICT services are increasingly used in Nepal along with expansion of internet services and mobile equipment throughout the country. According to the National Population and Housing Census 2011, there are more households with mobile phones than with toilets. The availability of computers is improving, though this technology is far from accessible to all schools. The quality and speed of internet services and its availability in rural areas are thin.
information and communication technology in education. The government is attempting to use ICT wherever possible. However, the direction and vision are not clear. It has been more than a decade since a formal curriculum and textbooks for computer education were introduced as an optional subject in secondary education. The Government of Nepal, with support from the NGO Open Learning Exchange Nepal, initiated the One Laptop per Child program with built-in learning content customized based on curriculum and the learning
53 These figures are based only on the government’s annual expenditure, and do not include out-of-pocket
expenses.
ability of primary-level students.55 Teachers were also trained on how to use laptops in
classroom teaching and learning for various subjects and grades. NCED currently uses ICT for administration, communication, and monitoring purposes. The Distance and Open Learning Division of NCED, which was a separate center previously, also utilizes ICT for teacher and trainer orientation through TV and radio. The Tribhuvan University Faculty of Education offers MEd and BEd courses in ICT.
information and communication technology in teacher education and training. There has been a gradual increase in the use of ICT in teacher training, although the availability and use of ICT-based resources for teachers remains very limited compared to the need and potential. For training programs organized in ETCs, ICT is used to deliver content through Microsoft PowerPoint presentations, videos, and other materials. ICT facilities, though not adequate in all ETCs, have helped teacher trainers to enrich their knowledge in training content and to update available information. At present, ETCs do not have enough facilities to utilize ICT, nor do the teacher trainers have adequate skills and knowledge on ICT. The training by ETCs does not involve ways to use ICT in classroom teaching and learning. Though NCED has attempted to provide online and offline interaction services to reach to trainers throughout the country, there are very few resource centers with computers, internet connections, and resource persons who can use computers.56 The universities have
been attempting to use ICT in their teacher education programs as far as their resources permit. However, the use of ICT in a wide range of teacher development activities, from open and distance learning targeting larger populations of schoolteachers to using it to complement face-to-face classroom settings, as is practiced in other countries in Asia and the Pacific (UNESCO 2011), seems only a very distant reality for the time being in Nepal. information and communication technology-related knowledge and skills in the teacher competencies. ICT-related knowledge and skills are not yet part of teacher competencies. At the school level, school management committees (SMCs) might consider knowledge of ICT as an advantage depending on the availability of computers. Though ICT development is not linked with the teacher education system directly, the use of ICT among teachers, especially for learning purposes, is increasing. The access of teachers to ICT is better in private schools than in public schools. In private schools, the recent trend is to include knowledge of ICT as a competency criterion. The teachers explore materials and content on the internet, prepare their lessons, and deliver lessons by using computers.
Much has been explored and achieved since Nepal started its journey to modernize its education system by way of teacher development. Teaching has been recognized as a profession. A basic level of initial teacher education has been made essential to become a teacher. Efforts to systematize teacher recruitment have been initiated. The need for quality teacher education and training for better classroom performance has been recognized. However, experience over the years has shown that despite these reform initiatives, teachers’ performance in the classroom has not improved.
55 Students were provided with individual laptops and were able to use them. However, a brief evaluation
conducted in selected areas identified that the One Laptop per Child program did not have the expected impact on learning achievement.
56 Though official data are not available regarding how many resource centers have computers, it was observed
during this study that none of the resource centers have computers, internet connections, or resource persons with the knowledge and skills to use computers.
appendix 2
129
G. recommendations
A good start toward the professional development of teachers has already been made in Nepal. However, a lot has yet to be done. The core objective of teacher professional development (TPD) in Nepal should be motivating teachers to learn, enhance their professional competency, and perform better inside the classroom. Keeping the past experiences in view, this section suggests certain priority measures as follows:
(i) establish and operate a comprehensive teacher management information system with portfolio management of all teachers (including competency, overall performance, professional competency needs, training received, and post-training performance).
(ii) Keep teacher competency in place and updated with support mechanisms and a self-learning facility. The teacher competency standards must be updated or upgraded and teaching licenses should require renewal based on objectively verifiable criteria, which could include (i) number of times the teacher visited a resource center, (ii) number of times the teacher visited self-learning facilities such as a teacher library, (iii) teacher attendance rate (higher than 80%), and (iv) at least one training taken or one workshop attended in a relevant area during the year. The enforcement of these competency measures should be coupled with a performance-based tenure system (removing the existing categorization of permanent, temporary, relief, and per-child fund). There may be similar options that could be explored and objectively verified for renewal of teacher licenses. To ensure that teachers in all districts have equal access to self-learning facilities and opportunities, the government should mobilize ETCs and resource centers accordingly.
(iii) rearrange and manage teaching career paths, which enables recruitment of fresh teachers, motivates them to perform inside the classroom, and encourages them to take part in professional development. The job tenure of teachers could be shortened to around 10 years by introducing a swift career path with regular promotion ladders based on performance. The career path should be lengthened with teachers’ promotion ladders based on objectively verifiable and transparent criteria. The existing short career ladder (first, second, and third class) could be expanded to 10 levels with slight increments in payment of around NRs250 to NRs1,000 per month for each higher step. The existing criteria for teacher performance evaluation could be used as a basis for promotion-related decisions.
(iv) use a logical and performance-based incentive mechanism to replace the blanket approach to salary scale. To make teachers perform inside the classroom, the incentive mechanism should be arranged in line with their performance, subjects they teach (demand and supply of teachers), and locations where they provide services. Two steps are suggested. First, increase the teacher entry qualification to a bachelor’s degree for the basic level and a master’s for the secondary school level (in any relevant discipline) with additional preservice training of around 18 months. Second, provide the same base salary for basic- and secondary-level teachers. For higher-demand subjects (i.e., secondary teachers for English, mathematics, and science), the base salary
could be slightly higher. The teacher salary should also have some differentials based on geographic location.
(v) strengthen the preservice teacher education and training to reduce the resource burden of in-service teacher education and training. The following strategies should be pursued.
(vi) First, continue the existing preservice course, making it of 4 years’ duration, with 3 years of regular campus or college-based study, and 1 year of supervised school-based internship. Such preservice should be available for specific subject specialization (i.e., English, mathematics, science, health and population, social studies) to offer admission to a limited number of students (after passing an entrance examination) in approved campuses to manage geographic distribution and quality standards. This should match the demand for teachers in specific subjects.
(vii) Second, for graduates from faculties other than education, there is a need for a preservice teacher education and training course (a 12- to 18-month teacher preparatory course), including a 6-month supervised internship.
(viii) Third, strengthen the preservice teacher training to provide hands-on skills and additional content to meet global standards. Some areas that require strengthening include development and use of teaching and learning
materials; use of ICT in the teaching and learning process; use of child-friendly approaches and activities (including dance, song, games); use of critical thinking methodology (including group work, peer work, etc.); student assessments (covering the continuous assessment system); and education management information systems (EMIS) and education statistics.
(ix) Fourth, support professional quality enhancement for teacher educators such as faculties of education within universities, and other preservice training providers.
(x) Fifth, convert resource centers and ETCs to learning centers, and make ETCs autonomous to enable them to utilize the available facilities and services. A resource utilization study of ETCs could help in framing strategies to make ETCs financially autonomous and active. There should be teacher libraries available in resource centers, which could continue the existing practices of organizing thematic workshops including subject-wise meetings of teachers, mobile meetings of teachers in different schools, and so on. The focus should be on making ICT-based materials available to teachers depending on their demand and interest.
(xi) establish sound institutional arrangements for teacher performance management. There are two options in setting up institutional arrangements: creating a strong technical agency to look after the Teacher Service Commission (TSC) and School Teacher Record Office (STRO) roles; and bringing clarity to their roles by linking them with each other in setting up and utilizing a teacher management information system (TMIS), and by capacity building of the TSC and STRO on overall aspects of teacher performance management. The TSC and STRO, combined or separate, need to look after the following aspects: (xii) First, forecast teacher demand and supply scenario, and coordinate with the
Department of Education (DOE) and the Ministry of Education (MOE) in allocating teacher quota.
appendix 2
131
(xiii) Second, conduct teacher license examinations following revisions and improvements in existing examination procedure. For example, such examinations should include practical tests, and assess the candidate’s
understanding of and adherence to child rights. Teacher licensing examinations should be conducted regularly and licenses should be issued (depending on teacher demand) with accreditations.
(xiv) Third, standardize the teacher and head teacher recruitment process to be conducted by SMCs at the school level. SMCs select teachers and head teachers based on a standardized process involving objectively verifiable criteria and an interview (with 30%–40% weightage). The district education office (DEO) needs to verify the selection file and check whether it follows standard procedure before providing approval. The DEO then should forward the file back to the SMC with approval and to the TSC for TMIS records.
(xv) Fourth, maintain TMIS for all teachers and head teachers working in schools (including teachers and head teachers in institutional schools and those funded by private sources in the community schools) in coordination with the DOE. (xvi) Sixth, take decisions to promote teachers and head teachers based on the
fulfillment of objectively verifiable criteria.
(xvii) redefine the role of the national center for educational Development in teacher professional development. NCED needs to be developed as a technical agency that runs academic in-service courses and induction courses targeting education system managers; education officials including school supervisors; resource persons; and others working in curriculum development, continuous assessment, testing, evaluation, and so on. Hence, NCED needs to figure out suitable linkages with local and international universities to obtain adequate technical know-how and support. In addition, NCED could also lead or strengthen short-term issue-based training packages for in-service teachers in areas such as (i) multilingual education; (ii) use of ICT in education; (iii) creating a positive feedback cycle among teachers in school; (iv) gender- friendly and inclusive education; and (v) healthy, safe, peaceful classroom and school.
(xviii) Competency standards and preservice training for head teachers should be separate. One strategy is to set competency of head teachers to be a master’s in education with focus on educational management. Another is to arrange a separate preparation course for head teachers (for those who are interested in applying and attending the training) of around 18 months (including 12 months of course and 6 months of supervised internships). Competency standards (i.e., objectively verifiable criteria) for head teachers should be updated and renewed as needed.
(xix) A standardized process should be developed for head teacher recruitment with objectively verifiable criteria based on which an SMC can recruit a head teacher from among the applicants (which may include teachers from the same school who meet the requirements) through the approval of the DEO.
references
Asian Development Bank (ADB). 2011. Completion Report: Secondary Education Support
Project in Nepal. Kathmandu.
M. B. Bista. 2006. Status of Female Teachers in Nepal. Kathmandu: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.
Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS). 2004. Nepal Living Standards Survey 2003/04, Statistical
Report. Volume 1. Kathmandu.
———. 2007. Nepal Living Standards Survey 2006/07, Statistical Report. Kathmandu. ———. 2011a. National Population and Housing Census 2011 (National Report). Kathmandu. ———. 2011b. Nepal Living Standard Survey—III. Statistical Report. Volume 1. Kathmandu. Centre for Economic Development and Administration (CEDA). 2007. Financing Higher
Education in Nepal: Final Report. Submitted to South Asia Network of Economic
Research Institutes, Pakistan Institute of Development Economics. Kathmandu: CEDA and Tribhuvan University.
D. Crosier and T. Parveva. 2013. The Bologna Process: Its Impact on Higher Education
Development in Europe and Beyond. Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation and International Institute for Educational Planning.
Cummins et al. 2012. Mid Term Evaluation of the School Sector Reform Program. Kathmandu: Government of Nepal and Australian Aid.
Department of Education (DOE). 2007. Per Capita Funding Guidelines. Kathmandu. ———. 2007. School Accreditation and Grant Distribution Manual, 2007. Kathmandu: DOE
and Ministry of Education and Sports.
———. 2000–2011. Flash Reports (School-Level Educational Statistics of Nepal). Kathmandu. ———. 2012a. School Level Educational Statistics of Nepal: Consolidated Report 2011
(2068BS). Kathmandu.
———. 2012b. Status Report—2011: School Sector Reform Program; Second Higher Education
Project; Community School Capacity Development Program; Education for All Shishu Vikas Karyakram. Sanothimi: Ministry of Education.
Education Development Service Centre (EDSC). Various years. National-Level Assessment
of Learning Achievement at G3, G5, G3, G5 and G8. Kathmandu.
Education Review Office (ERO). 2013. National Assessment of Grade 8 Students. Kathmandu: Ministry of Education.
Foundation for Human Development and Research Inputs and Development Action (RIDA). 2009. Improving Local Service Delivery for MDGs in Asia: Education Sector
in Nepal, Country Case Study. http://regionalcentrebangkok.undp.or.th/practices/
governance/documents/NPL-Education Sector.pdf
Government of Nepal. 1990. Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal. Kathmandu.
Kathmandu Post. 2013. <Article name>. 22 February.
Kathmandu University School of Education (KUSOE). 2009. Strengthening Teacher
Training to Achieve Education for All: Reviewing Preservice Teacher Training in Nepal.
appendix 2
133
Ministry of Education (MOE). 2009. School Sector Reform Plan 2009–2015. Kathmandu. ———. 2013. (Institutional (Private) Schools Standards and Operations Guidelines).
Kathmandu.
Ministry of Education and Sports (MOES). 2003a. Education for All 2004–2009: Core
Document. Kathmandu.
———. 2003b. Education for All: National Plan of Action Nepal 2001–2015. Kathmandu: Nepal National Commission for United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in Nepal and MOES.
———. 2008. School Sector Reform: Core Document—Policies and Strategies. Kathmandu. Ministry of Health and Population, New ERA, and ICF International Inc. 2012. Nepal
Demographic and Health Survey 2011. Kathmandu.
Ministry of Finance (MOF). 2012a. Budget Speech FY 2011/2012. Kathmandu. ———. 2012b. (Economic Survey FY 2011/12). Kathmandu.
———. 2012c. Summary of Expenditure Allocation for Fiscal Year 2012 (The Red Book). Kathmandu.
Ministry of Law and Justice (MOLJ). 2001. Education Act 1971, Seventh Amendment (2001). Kathmandu.
———. 2004a. Education Act 1971, Amendment Based on Ordinance (2004). Kathmandu. ———. 2004b. (Education Regulations, 2059 BS [2002], Second Amendment, 2060 BS
[2004]). Kathmandu.
———. 2007. Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2063 (2007). Kathmandu. ———. 2008. Education Acts and Regulations. Kathmandu.
National Center for Educational Development (NCED). 2009. Independent Technical
Review of Teacher Education Project (2002–2009): Final Report. Kathmandu: Ministry
of Education.
———. 2010a. Teacher Professional Development (TPD) Handbook 2066 BS. Bhaktapur. ———. 2010b. Teacher Development Policy Guidelines. Kathmandu.
———. 2011. Teacher Development Policy Document. Kathmandu
———. 2012. Training for Trainers Teacher Professional Development Manual 2069 BS. Bhaktapur.
National Council on Teacher Quality. 2013. Teacher Prep Review: A Review of the Nation’s
Teacher Preparation Programs. www.nctq.org/teacherprep.
Nepal Evaluation and Assessment Team. 2011. Annual Evaluation of Quality Education
through Disaster Resilient Schools Project. Study commissioned by Action Aid Nepal.
Kathmandu.
Nepal Law Commission. 2009. (Teachers Service Commission Regulations 2057 BS [2000], Fourth Amendment, 2066 BS [2009]). www.lawcommission.com.np. NORAD. 2009. Joint Evaluation of Education for All 2004–2009 Sector Program. Kathmandu:
Cambridge Education Consultants and METECON Consultants on behalf of Norwegian Agency for Development.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2011. Education at a Glance. www.oecd.org.
L. Pradhan. 2011. Distance Education in Nepal. Paper presented at the first International Technology, Education and Environment Conference organized by African Society for Scientific Research. Omoku, Nigeria.
Research Inputs and Development Action (RIDA). 2009. Evaluation of Partnership for
Quality Education through Parental Participation Project. Kathmandu: RIDA and
UNICEF Nepal Country Office.
F. Shams, D. Thapa, and T. Parajuli. 2013. Teacher Management and Development in Nepal:
A Strategy and Policy Document. Manila: Asian Development Bank.
K. Shrestha. 2008. Teacher Development at Secondary Education in Nepal. Journal of
Education and Research. 1(5):41–50. Kathmandu: Kathmandu University.
Teacher Service Commission. 2004. (Teacher Service Commission Working Procedure 2001). Kathmandu.
University Grants Commission (UGC). 2012. Education Management Information System: Report on Higher Education 2010/11 Nepal. Kathmandu.
———. Undated. Annual Report 2067/68 (2010/11). Sanothimi, Bhaktapur.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2009. Human Development Report
2009. Overcoming Barriers: Human Mobility and Development. New York.
———. 2010. Human Development Report. New York: United Nations Development Program with Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2011. ICT for
Higher Education: Case Studies from Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: Asia and Pacific
Regional Bureau for Education and UNESCO.
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and Research Inputs and Development Action (RIDA). 2009–2011. Analysis of the Impact of 3F Crisis on Children’s Education in
Nepal. Kathmandu.
University of Oxford. 2010. Country Briefing Nepal (Multidimensional Poverty Index at a
Glance). http://ophi.qeh.ox.ac.uk.
E. Villegas-Reimers. 2003. Teacher Professional Development: An International Review of