SUMINISTRO DE INFORMACIÓN

A wide range of companies sees the media either as a cause of crises or their principal point of contact. Whereas some aspects of these statements may be true, crisis communication has far more functions and scope of influence in each crisis management stage. Certainly, the management of information technologies (e.g. e-mail, television, news media) is crucial. Facing the speed of media coverage these days, it is unlikely that there will be a time delay between a crisis occurring and the resulting media coverage. This implies the significance of immediate crisis communication. Because - if immediate information is not available, this leaves room for speculative stories.61 Applying “no comment” in crisis communication could imply that the organisation is guilty or hiding something, therefore spokespersons would be wise avoiding this phrase.62 Furthermore, in most cases it seems advantageous to tell the truth at a time of crisis.63 How and what an organisation communicates during a crisis has a significant effect on the outcomes of the crisis – this includes the number of injuries and the amount of reputational damage sustained by the organisation.64 Mitroff et al. are equally right to state: “Realize that there are no secrets in the modern world. Realize that taking the initiative by telling the truth allows you to control who reveals the truth, in what circumstances, and when it is revealed.”65

Nevertheless, the various perspectives of the recommendable extent of shared information have to be balanced: Whereas “lawyers typically want to say as little as possible during a crisis in order to avoid or minimize legal liability[;] marketing, public affairs, and public relations executives, on the other hand, want to share information more broadly as a means of retaining or recovering consumer confidence and hence safeguarding their business”66_.Therefore,

61 _{cf. Ashcroft, L. S., “Crisis management - Public Relations,” Journal of Managerial Psychology, 12 (1997), 325–332, p. 328.}

62 _{cf. Coombs, W. T., “Parameters for Crisis communication,” in The Handbook of Crisis communication, ed. by W. Timothy Coombs and}

Sherry J. Holladay (Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2010), pp. 17–53, p. 28.

63 _{cf. Ashcroft, L. S., “Crisis management - Public Relations,” Journal of Managerial Psychology, 12 (1997), 325–332, p. 325.}

64 _{cf. Coombs, W. T., “Parameters for Crisis communication,” in The Handbook of Crisis communication, ed. by W. Timothy Coombs and}

Sherry J. Holladay (Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2010), pp. 17–53, p. 20.

65 _{Mitroff, I. I., Managing Crises before They Happen - What Every Executive and Manager Needs to Know about Crisis management (New}

York: AMACON, 2000), p. 79.

66 _{Mitroff, I. I., Pearson, C. M., Harrington, L.K., The Essential Guide to Managing Corporate Crises - a Step-by-step Handbook for} Surviving Major Catastrophes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996) p. 13.

balancing crisis communication and disseminating information in all crisis stages plays an essential role. While denial is never a promising attitude, evading responsibility or reducing offensiveness might represent two feasible communication options – especially in the sense of image restoration. 67 _{Referring to the underlying research topic of this doctoral thesis, two basic}

types of crisis communication can be identified:

 crisis knowledge management (mainly within the organisation),  stakeholder reaction management (mainly externally oriented).

Furthermore, knowledge as a vital source of crisis management strategies can be divided into two sections:

 “explicit knowledge, which can be codified and physically stored in databases,  tacit knowledge, which consists of the mental models and experience of

individuals (in the form of specific experience, expertise, knowledge, and intuition), and which is closely associated with the individual who possesses it.”68 Ideally, a company speaks during a crisis with one voice. Nevertheless, this must not be confused with having just one trained and well-informed spokesperson during a crisis. In fact, different spokespersons may be needed to cover various areas of expertise, or a crisis may last several days or longer making it impossible for one person being the sole voice for the organisation. Furthermore, the person may vary upon the crisis type or media. However, all spokespersons must be kept on the same information level to help insure consistency.69 In the majority of organisations, “public relations” is the department responsible for crisis communication. Their main fields of action in this context are training spokespersons, developing guidelines and policies as well as determining general processes for dealing with the media.70 _{As a result of extra staffing, double shifts and additional volunteers, the number of}

staff using the communication system during times of crisis is often significantly higher than in non-crisis-situations.71

A communication plan contains a variety of important information and guidelines how to communicate in crisis situations. The issues range from simple emergency lists to

67 _{cf. Coombs, W. T., “Parameters for Crisis communication,” in The Handbook of Crisis communication, ed. by W. Timothy Coombs and}

Sherry J. Holladay (Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2010), pp. 17–53, p. 32.

68 _{Racherla, P., Hu, C., “A Framework for Knowledge-Based Crisis management in the Hospitality and Tourism industry,” Cornell} Hospitality Quarterly, 50 (2009), 561–577, p. 565.

69 _{cf. Coombs, W. T., “Parameters for Crisis communication,” in The Handbook of Crisis communication, ed. by W. Timothy Coombs and}

Sherry J. Holladay (Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2010), pp. 17–53, p. 29.

70 _{cf. Burnett, J. J., “A Strategic Approach to Managing Crises,” Public Relations Review, 24 (1998), 475–488, p. 476.}

71 _{cf. Quarantelli, E. L., “Disaster Crisis management: A Summary of Research Findings,” Journal of Management Studies, 25 (1988), 373–}

communication trees designating the flow of messages.72 In addition, concrete communication tactics might be formulated. For example, a fundamental advice for the dealing with reporters is: In case of treating reporters with respect in good times, they are more likely to portray a company fairly in bad times. In a press conference, answering awkward queries, the training in using certain exemplary phrases might help. Each organisation needs to build up its own exemplary and basic phrases tailored according to its specific requisites.73