9.9 TABLEROS Y SISTEMAS DE TABLEROS DE MADERA
9.9.8 Superficies de Rodamiento sobre Tableros de Madera
The main challenge for optimization of biogas plants is to manage the complexity of the anaerobic digestion process in terms of the required optimal conditions for the anaerobic bacteria and archaea, their syntrophic relations, and the interaction between the chemical compounds present. This is especially important when inhibiting compounds, such as HAL and FAL, are present because inhibition mitigation can interfere with anaerobic digestion optimal conditions.
In order to mitigate HAL and FAL inhibition on anaerobic hydrolysis, HM should be removed from the (co)‐digestion substrates or inactivated, by binding them to an inorganic compound. Removal of HAL from surface water has been successfully achieved by several authors using techniques such as: coagulation by aluminium sulphate or iron chloride or calcium hydroxide; adsorption with natural absorbents, such as powdered activated carbon (PAC) and with cationic polymers, such as polyethylenimines (PEI’s); and by precipitate flotation using cationic surfactants, such as cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) and dodecylamine (DDA) (Brum and Oliveira, 2007). Combining coagulants and adding flocculants, such as calcium hydroxide with iron, have been shown to improve HAL removal efficiencies and to improve setting. However, this process has the disadvantage of increasing metal concentration in the liquid phase (Renou et al., 2008). Coagulation‐flocculation techniques have been reported for removal of HAL from landfill leachates, both as pre‐ and post‐treatment (Tzoupanos et al., 2008). Renou et al. (Renou et al., 2008), in their review paper on landfill leachate treatment options, indicated that flotation can remove almost 60% of the HAL and biofloculation more than 85%. The most efficient processes for HAL and FAL removal reported are, however, reverse osmosis (Renou et al., 2008) and ion exchange resins, such as MIEX®, for which a 90% HAL and FAL removal from ground water was reported (Fearing et al., 2004). However in all these studies the solids content was low, which is not the case for agricultural biowaste, making it more difficult to use such techniques. In high solids content waste streams, the HAL and FAL become less accessible, therefore interfering with the efficiency of the above mentioned HM removal technique. To reduce the solids concentration, a solid‐liquid separation process needs to be applied. This includes separation by settling tanks or by centrifuges; mechanical removal of solids by forced filtration with screw presses; and drainage through fabric belts or screens (Hjorth et al., 2010). Since most of these processes are high in energy demand, they are economically less attractive for small‐scale biogas plants. However, for large‐scale plants they can be economically feasible as the removed HM have commercial value as a soil conditioner. Therefore, in order to accelerate the overall treatment
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process and to enable HM removal, more complex systems should be implemented, as shown in Figure 7.1. Lime addition: • 10% • 85°C • 16 h • pH ≈ 12 Manure storage Agricultural residues Pre‐treatment Ca(OH)2 CHP Electricity Heat Solid/liquid separation HA and FA adsorption to resin HA + resin Liquid Solid Struvite pre. pH ≈ 9 Struvite Liquid Regeneration Resin HA (fertilizer) Ammonia stripping UASB digestate A.D. Biogas Biogas Lime addition: • 10% • 85°C • 16 h • pH ≈ 12 Manure storage Manure storage Agricultural residues Pre‐treatment Ca(OH)2 CHP Electricity Heat Solid/liquid separation HA and FA adsorption to resin HA + resin Liquid Solid Struvite pre. pH ≈ 9 Struvite Liquid Regeneration Resin HA (fertilizer) Ammonia stripping UASB digestate A.D. Biogas Biogas Figure 7.1. Optional set‐up for large‐scale biowaste treatment.
In this large‐scale case, the precipitation of the HM with an ion exchange resin will enable HM removal. Moreover, anaerobically digesting the solids separated from the liquid will enable application of different operational conditions and recuperation of nutrients in inorganic fertilizer form, such as magnesium‐ammonium‐phosphates or struvite. Finally, pre‐treating the lignocellulosic biomass with chemicals, such as calcium hydroxide under high temperature, will increase solubility and biodegradability, and reduce the time of treatment.
Pre‐treatment methods, which vary according to the type of substrate and operational conditions, have been recently described in the reviews of Hendriks and Zeeman (2009), Mosier et al. (2005) and Taherzadeh and Karimi (2008) with regard to lignocellulosic biomass, Hjorth et al. (2010) regarding animal slurry, and Renou et al. (2008) with respect to landfill leachate. In this thesis, in Chapter 6, a pre‐treatment method ‐ maleic acid at 150°C ‐, which is not included in the mentioned reviews, was tested, in comparison with ammonium and calcium
hydroxide thermo‐chemical pre‐treatments. The results indicated that maleic acid is a very good pre‐treatment, having the highest solubilisation of COD from the three tested methods. However, it is also the most expensive chemical, as recently analysed by Kootstra et al. (2009) who concluded that it costed 65 €∙Mg‐1 of dry feedstock. Another chemical investigated in chapter 6, was calcium hydroxide (lime). This chemical pre‐treatment was not as effective as maleic acid in terms of COD solubility, but showed the highest improvement in terms of biodegradability of lignocellulosic biomass with high lignin content, such as bracken. Lime has the advantages of being inexpensive, safe to handle, also efficient at ambient temperatures, and recoverable from liquid as calcium carbonate (Mosier et al., 2005). Lime pre‐treatment removes the lignin, acetyl and uronic substitutions on hemicellulose, therefore increasing accessibility of hydrolytic enzymes to cellulose and hemicellulose (Chang and Holtzapple, 2000). Under elevated temperatures, usually 85 to 150°C, the pre‐treatment time is significantly reduced. This, however, does not influence the efficiency of the lime treatment, since identical digestibility (above 70%) has been reported for sugarcane bagasse at ambient temperatures for 192h, and at 120°C for 1h (Mosier et al., 2005). Therefore, lime addition at ambient temperatures is a good option for small‐scale biogas plants, since farmers can just spray diluted lime (about 10%) onto the agricultural residues and store it for a few days, as shown in Figure 7.2. Manure Agricultural residues Pre‐treatment Anaerobic digester CHP Electricity Heat Farm & House Biogas Lime addition: • ambient temp. • many weeks • pH ≈ 12 Ca(OH)2 Post‐digester mix Biogas digestate Figure 7.2. Suggested set‐up for small‐scale biowaste treatment.
Moreover, it is expected that, together with the breaking up of the lignocellulosic biomass, part of the HM will bind to the calcium, as at high pH the proton‐binding sites are sufficiently dissociated (Tipping, 2002). Animal manure also contains high orthophosphate concentrations, which varies according to the type of animal, diet and storage of the manure (Hjorth et al., 2010). When adding calcium to the liquid fraction of manure, the orthophosphate might compete with the HM for calcium binding. However, this binding is strongly dependent on the
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pH, concentrations of calcium, carbonate, orthophosphate and HM, and the binding sites. According to Borggaard et al. (2005), the amount of HAL adsorbed to iron and aluminium, which are good binding compounds, was higher than for phosphate, however the difference was not significant. This small difference is suggested to be due to the fact that HAL and phosphate bind differently to carboxylic groups, depending whether they occur isolated as single groups or as neighbouring COOH groups in aliphatic or aromatic structures (Borggaard et al., 2005). It should also be taken into consideration that animal manure contains ammonium and magnesium, and at pH > 9 struvite might be formed (Renou et al., 2008). In order to show the behaviour of calcium with HM and phosphate during pre‐treatment and anaerobic digestion, model simulations with OLI Stream analyser (OLI Systems, NJ, USA) were performed and are here presented. The input data included NH4+‐N, P, K, Cl, S, Ca and Mg concentrations from a mixture
of dairy manure and food waste (El‐Mashad and Zhang, 2007). Bicarbonate was adjusted so the stream had a neutral charge and the temperature was set to 35°C. Citric acid was used to simulate HM. Its three pka’s are 3.13, 4.76 and 6.4. Calcium hydroxide was continuously added during simulation, as it would be the case in the pre‐treatment suggested in Figure 7.2. The results indicate that at pH above 9.5 most of the calcium precipitates with carbonate forming calcite (Figure 7.3). The citric acid and phosphate present precipitated almost completely with calcium, leaving only a very small amount in the aqueous form, which is also bond to calcium or to magnesium. At a pH of 7.5, which is commonly found in anaerobic co‐digesters, the binding of citric acid and phosphate is identical, however for the citric acid, more than half of it will be in the aqueous form (Ca[C6H5O7]‐1). Struvite
precipitation was not observed at the increasing pH, most likely because all the phosphate had a preference to precipitate with calcium forming hydroxyapatite (Ca5(OH)(PO4)3) instead of struvite.
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10 10.5 11 11.5 12 pH D o m ina nt sp ec ies (m o l) CaCO3 Ca3[C6H5O7]2.4H2O Ca5(OH)(PO4)3 Ca[C6H5O7]‐1 Figure 7.3. Predicted calcium bond compounds at varying pH. These simulations, even though not performed with HM, give the indication that the HAL and phosphate, when excess of calcium is added as in the proposed pre‐treatment, will bind to calcium and remain bonded throughout the biogas plant, therefore only leaving the treatment system in the form of digestate. However, these conclusions should be experimentally confirmed, before implementation.
In any case, having precipitation of HM with inorganics, such as Ca, Mg, K, P and N will only enrich the digestate, and therefore the fertilizer, as HM are known to increase soil quality and plant growth (Demirbas et al., 2006). The major concern is the ratio that these compounds will be present in the fertilizer in relation to the nutrients demand of the soil. Calcium is also needed for plant growth, however since an excess is being added for the pre‐treatment it would be advantageous to reuse part of this calcium. When mixing the pre‐treatment effluent with the liquid from the anaerobic digester, the pH will decrease and set to about 7.5. If needed acid addition can be applied to adjust the pH. At a pH of about 7.5, a third of the calcium will be present in the aqueous form, which can then be recycled to the pre‐treatment process, as suggested in Figure 7.2.
From the above considerations it becomes clear that many possible interactions can be expected when pre‐treating biowaste with calcium hydroxide. In choosing the most proper pre‐treatment method some pre‐conditions should be met, such as:
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Enhancement of agricultural residues digestibility, by removing lignin and making hemicellulose and cellulose available for hydrolytic enzymes. Therefore, reducing the HRT and increasing biogas yield. Enabling reuse of the pre‐treatment chemical or upgrade the added chemical to a valuable fertilizer. Removal or inactivation of the HM binding sites before anaerobic digestion, thereby mitigating hydrolysis inhibition. Usage of the removed or bond HAL to enrich the inorganic fertilizer.
Hydrolysis enhancement can be achieved by increased accessibility of the biodegradable substrate and mitigation of inhibiting compounds, such as HAL and FAL. Mitigating the inhibition can be achieved either by removing the inhibiting compound, or by making it inactive, or by reducing the inhibitory effect with external agents.
7.5 Optimizing anaerobic hydrolysis with enzyme addition
Enzyme addition (shortly discussed at the end of chapter 2) has recently gained the attention of biogas plants’ operators, because it has been shown that hydrolytic enzymes can accelerate, and even sometimes increase biogas production (Romano et al., 2009; Yunqin et al., 2010). Even though in some cases enzyme addition accelerates the hydrolysis, the mechanisms behind the observed phenomenon are not fully understood. Therefore, further research is needed to determine how the operational conditions, substrate characteristics, enzyme activity, and enzyme concentrations can influence the impact of enzyme addition on hydrolysis (Romano et al., 2009). When the microbial biomass is well adapted to the conditions in the reactor, and no inhibition is present, the acidogenic bacteria should be able to produce enough enzymes to hydrolyse the substrate (Sanders, 2001). Therefore, hydrolysis enhancement by enzyme addition can only be expected when the acidogenic bacteria are not able to produce enough hydrolytic enzymes and/or the enzymes are inhibited, which is the case for the experiments performed in chapter 5.