settlement purpose While Göbekli Tepe solely as cultic centre has been questioned, that was its main purpose. A structure similar to those at Göbekli Tepe at Nevali Çori is associated with domestic structures. On this basis it is reasonable to expect the same cultic-domestic mix of structures at Göbekli Tepe. Çayonu combined both domestic and non-domestic activity.
structures All three sites evidence continued rebuilding of structures in the same place. Göbekli Tepe repeated the same general enclosure plan and extended construction of these during its levels. Developments at Nevali Çori and Çayonu showed initial
similarity in their channel and later platform units and alignments, but there was change in type during the occupational sequence, particularly at Çayonu. These suggest possible ideological development, such as regional networking, intentionally involving larger numbers of people, possibly from outside the settlement, and associated activities such as feasting and trade.
special buildings All three sites have buildings differing significantly from those considered domestic by their size, construction, positioning and content, indicating ideological behaviour and social control. Termed cult buildings, they are generally isolated on the settlement periphery and/or simply by their nature, and of size suggesting intentional bringing together communities or specific groups within them, and others external. Their nature implies the presence of particular individuals responsible for building construction, and for management of the cultic practices carried out within
them. Those at Göbekli Tepe and Nevali Çori are similar in terms of plan and
construction (e.g., perimeter walls circled by stone slab benches with built-in pillars with T-capitals featuring relief decoration) suggesting the same/similar ideology and its continuation. At Çayönü, the cult building was different and took various forms during the occupational sequence, in turn suggesting a sequence of significant ideological changes. Furthermore, Çayönü, continuing after abandonment of both Nevali Çori and Göbekli Tepe, exhibits greater integration of its cultic buildings within the settlement. Reflected in this is strategising to address need for community consolidation and engendering a co-operative ethos. This trend does not appear in the other two sites.
burials While no burials have been found to date at Göbekli Tepe, pieces of human bone in backfill displaying cut marks suggests that mortuary practice was for disposal in this way. At Nevali Çori and Çayonu the number of burials is less than would be expected and a reflection of choice within households and settlements as a whole. Some individuals were selected for interment in the special buildings, implying a form of social control and related rituals. Both indicate special concern with skulls. At Nevali Çori, burials were in houses, not special buildings. Çayönü, continuing after abandonment of both Nevali Çori and Göbekli Tepe, exhibits change in the positioning of its cultic buildings from being isolated within the settlement to integration. At the same time, burials within the settlement disappear. This trend is not evident all three sites.
shamanism Between them, the three settlements provide a range of evidence for shamanistic behaviour:
. reduced copper ore artefacts point to some individuals possessing ‘magical’ metallurgical skills;
. symbolism
- pillars representing human forms, perhaps mythological individuals and ancestors,
- images possibly indicating perceived powerful supernatural forces, and - female and animal figurines;
. a focus on dangerous and menacing creatures such as felines, snakes, spiders and scorpions but particularly aurochs, boars and vultures;
. ritual behaviour as indicated by special buildings, shrines and temples, and by the various ways the dead were treated and used; and
REDACTIONS
Figure 17.1 Location of Urfu District, Anatolia, and sites discussed
Figure 17.2 Göbekli Tepe: (a) positioning on plateau remnant summit; (b) the site ref: Schmidt 2010:240
Figure 17.3 Göbekli Tepe: site reconstruction
ref: http://miscellaneous-pics.blogshot.com.au/2011/02/gobekli-tepe.html
Figure 17.4 Göbekli Tepe: pattern map of Layer II (rectangular units) and Layer III (circular units) ref: Schmidt 2010:240
Figure 17.5 Göbekli Tepe: Enclosure B/Level III ref: Hodder 2006:134
Figure 17.6 Göbekli Tepe: humanoid figure on pillar (a) side view; (b) section of front showing belt ref: National Geographic June 2100:34; Schmidt 2010:244
Figure 17.7 Göbekli Tepe: enclosure pillar ref: http://thedailyjournalist.com/the-historian/gobekli-tepe-image
Figure 17.8 Göbekli Tepe: enclosure pillar
ref: http://thedailyjournalist.com/the-historian/gobekli-tepe-images
Figure 17.9 Göbekli Tepe: enclosure pillars
ref:https://austincoppock.com/astrology-59-515-testimony-stone/
Figure 17.10 Göbekli Tepe: enclosure pillar ref: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QmPpsIKEru8 Figure 17.11 Lions Building at Göbekli Tepe: side view
ref: Tobolczk 2016:1401
Figure 17.12 Lions Building at Göbekli Tepe: top view and Lion carving
ref: Tobolczk 2016:1401
Figure 17.13 Göbekli Tepe: humanoid figure/male sexuality
ref: Hodder 2006:200
Figure 17.14 Göbekli Tepe: humanoid figure
ref: Hodder 2006:24
Figure 17.15 Göbekli Tepe: humanoid figure
ref: https://it.pinterest.com/pin/173318285639160455/
Figure 17.16 Göbekli Tepe: humanoid figure refhttps://www.pinterest.co.uk/gilliantappin/gobekli-tepe/
Figure 17.17 Göbekli Tepe: humanoid ‘totem pole’
ref: https://it.pinterest.com/pin/464222674060986512
Figure 17.18 Göbekli Tepe: humanoid figure
ref: Hauptmann 1999
Figure 17.19 Göbekli Tepe: stone sculpture
ref: https://museum-of-artifacts.blogspot.com.au/2017/01/gobekli-tepe-where-religion-was-born.html Figure 17.20 Göbekli Tepe: stone sculpture ref: https://sphotos-b-dfw.xx.fbcdn.net/hphotos-ak-prn1 Figure 17.21 Göbekli Tepe: female sexuality/Venus accueillante figure
ref: Schmidt 2010:246 Figure 17.22 Nevali Çori: (a-d) Level I-IV settlement plans ref: Hauptman 1999
Figure 17.23 Nevali Çori: axiometric reconstruction of Cult Building II and III ref: Hauptman 1999 Figure 17.24 Nevali Çori: Cult Buildings: (a) Layer II; (b) Layer III ref: Hauptman 1999 Figure 17.25 Nevali Çori: limestone sculpture of head with snake ref Hauptmann 1999
Figure 17.26 Nevali Çori: limestone sculpture of large bird ref Hauptmann 1999 Figure 17.27 Nevali Çori: limestone composite ‘totem pole’ figure ref Hauptmann 1999
Figure 17.28 Nevali Çori: limestone bowl with theriomorphic figures in relief ref Hauptmann 1999 Figure 17.29 Nevali Çori: limestone plate engraved with theriomorphic figures ref Hauptmann
1999
Figure 17.30 Çayonu: Skull Building round plan of first structure (BM1) and rectangular second structure (BM2) ref: Özdoğan 1999
Part B DEVELOPMENT OF A GENERAL MODEL Return to Contents B4: DEVELOPMENT FIELD PHASE 3