Técnica de confiabilidad y validez de los datos

Culture is one of the main elements that affect human behaviour. Culture can be considered to be a broad, impersonal reference group consisting of knowledge, customs, behaviour and techniques which are socially acquired by human beings (Pizam & Mansfeld, 1999). Culture also influences the behaviour of a person as a consumer. According to the definition of Milman et al. (1990) culture is an integrated pattern of human behaviour that includes thoughts, actions, communication, values, customs, and beliefs, racial, religious or social issues. However, for the purpose of this study, culture is defined as the values and beliefs that influence MICE participant’s motivations, perceptions, and attitudes. The debate over whether perceptions or attitudes might be more directly related to values and beliefs is not very relevant for analysing the thesis objectives. These objectives focus upon determining whether MICE participant motives, perceptions and attitudes differ between the Muslim and non-Muslim groupings, and whether this information can be used to develop marketing strategies.

The conflicting needs of following host country culture and one’s own home culture is often difficult to balance when one is residing in another country. The Australian-born Muslim youth want to maintain their Australian as well as religious identity, according to the findings of Sheriffdeen (2011). This conflict of interest determines the behaviour of a tourist in a country of different culture. It also influences perception,

motivation and attitude which are factors of destination decision making. Therefore, in this study, measurement of these factors in relation to an already decided destination (KSA) can indicate the factors for favourable destination decision making. People within a particular culture have shared cultural values and are different from one culture to another. Briley, Morris, and Simonson (2000) reviewed the trend of findings on cultural impact in the decision making process. They discussed two basic debates regarding the influence of culture on consumer decision-making. First, biases in terms of certain preferences and in the weighting of particular forms of information reflect psychological mechanisms, which are shaped by biological evolution and not influenced by culture. Second, cultural knowledge driving tendencies has been envisioned in terms of highly general attitudes or in terms of value clusters, such as individualism-collectivism. The studies related to individualism-collectivism have received much attention in both cultural psychology and marketing fields (Bagozzi & Warshaw 1990).

Recently, Lee et al. (2007) examined factors that influence a consumer’s planned or impulse driven purchase decisions by comparing individualists with collectivist consumers. They found cultural differences in decision-making as well as the satisfaction levels achieved by any product or service. In the tourism context, there are differences in tourist behaviour reflecting from differences in nationality. Briley et al. (2000) compared culturally different countries such as America, Japan and China to understand the influence of culture on decision making. According to their observations, when reasons are required for decisions, individuals from Eastern cultures may often choose compromise for support, while individuals from North American culture may often choose single interest support.

In fact, a critical role is played by religion and cultural characteristics in shaping a tourist’s decisions and behaviour. Cultural background is increasingly being incorporated as a key variable by many researchers to explain patterns in tourists’ preferences and behaviour, variations in travel characteristics and behaviour of tourists (Weiermair, 2000).

Sheriffdeen (2011) remarked highly conservative Islamic culture stressed issues of sexuality and gender equality, and supported more egalitarian roles for women in public, in workplace and at home. Also, Muslims are far less tolerant towards issues

of sexual liberalization, which is manifested in their attitudes towards abortion, divorce and homosexuality. Not surprisingly, therefore, Islamic societies are strongly religious in their values compared to the almost secular views of most Western societies.

At an individual level, the high degree of one’s adherence to the five pillars or Shari’a (Islamic Law) indicates the strength of their attachment to religion in their lives. Moreover, Muslims are required to respect the basic Islamic precepts like prohibition of alcohol, non-halal food, gambling or mixing of men and women. However, some general values like the high esteem of family are widely espoused. The concept of lifelong singleness is foreign to Islam (Jafari & Scott, 2013).

A most favourable point with respect to Islam is that it promotes economic growth rather than diminishes it. Both within and cross country comparisons show this according to the results obtained by Jafari & Scott (2013). The authors cited Hofstede’s opinion that culture preceded religion and religions that fit with current values are adopted. Thus culture and religion are not the same. If Islam promotes economic growth, it also promotes MICE tourism-related development of a region or country. Of course it can also be argued that this is true of non-Muslim cultures as well.

The Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) is promoting Islamic tourism among Muslim countries in a big way. Justifying promotion of Islam tourism on the grounds of an increasing Muslim population trend (Jafari & Scott, 2013). Tourists who select destinations of Islamic importance and observe Islamic principles of tourism were highlighted. Tourist sites need to provide for Islamic dress code, halal foods and drinks and prayer facilities. The results reveal a close relationship between tourist satisfaction and Islamic attributes. Islamic attributes, destination attributes and service quality increased destination loyalty. The findings conform to the general theories on consumer choice and behaviour and are applicable in an Islamic content.

Religion can act as a motivating factor, a constraint or as a factor affecting visitation patterns. Jews not preferring to travel on Saturdays, specific pilgrimage tours and specific interest in visiting places of worship during a tourism visit have all been cited as examples by different authors. Apparently, pilgrimage tourists have different

characteristics than other tourist types. People in some religious groups may not consume drinks, smoke or take drugs. People may visit religious centres for non- religious reasons also. Poria, et al. (2003) investigated the effect of religion on visitation patterns of tourists to a heritage site, the Wailing Wall in Israel. Perceptions of tourists in relation to their own heritage is an important factor. Differences between Jews and Christians with respect to their visitation purposes, motivations, perception and experience were explainable in terms of their religious affiliations. Strength of belief in the same religious groups or between groups also had similar effects.

Sidumo et al. (2010) observed that the majority of non-Muslim nurses attached to the obstetric units in Saudi Arabia did not know Muslim cultural neo-natal practices. When employed in places of other cultures, it is important to know that culture for the effective discharge of duties. But in the case of tourism, it is the other way around. The destination sites should know the cultural differences of tourists and provide service facilities according to their culture.

Jafari and Scott (2013) discussed Muslim culture and religion in detail. In the context of tourism, they found that for Muslims tourism is closely intertwined with culture, whereas Non-Muslim tourism is characterised by the western concept of travel and hedonism. There is a strong influence of religious beliefs, which directs Muslims to travel to specific sites and influences their attitudes, behaviour, perceptions and emotions when visiting these sites. Differences could exist in these respects between those who visit the sites as pilgrims and as sight-seers. In the case of Islam, tourism implicitly means pilgrimage as the main destination is Makkah. As a sole destination is already prescribed by the religion, factors like perception, motivation, attitude and destination image and so forth which were discussed earlier are irrelevant in the case of Islamic pilgrimage.

The Holy Quran encourages travel to other parts of the world to see the might of Allah in the creation and fate of those who denied him. Such travels also impose restrictions on perception and motivation as these are already prescribed. Due to the specific service needs of Muslim travellers, some hotels and travel organisations arrange the required facilities at specialised places in non-Muslim destinations. Muslims travel to other Muslim countries to foster community fraternity. Terrorism has encouraged more Muslim travel to Muslim countries, if not by preferred choice,

at least by contextual need. Destination imaging as per Islamic culture may contain elements which can deter Western tourists from Muslim countries which would like to increase tourist flows.

Islamic values may get corrupted if other tourism styles are mixed with site identity and image. Gender matters in the case of employment in the tourism sector and women travelling alone in some Muslim countries. Geographical and cultural proximity has been the basis of Saudi Arabia and China promoting tourism from its neighbours. Using tourism to destinations of other religions should encourage accommodating different values and beliefs across people of different religious beliefs. However, in practice, they have only helped to grow Islamophobia mainly because of terrorism practiced by some Muslim extremist groups. However, the great adaptability of Muslims is demonstrated in their easily deviating from the social values and attitudes of their home country and absorbing the new social values and attitudes of the host country upon migration (Jafari and Scott, 2013).

Henderson (2011) stressed the need to preserve Islamic and Arabic culture in Oman and Qatar to promote Islamic tourism. The increasing trend of Muslim population growth and Islamic financing around the world has prompted higher volumes of Muslim travellers to Islamic countries. Based on this, Maswir & Azwar (2014), proposed that Brunei Darussalam develop its infrastructure to promote Islamic tourism in the country. In an alternative example the promotion of local tourism of event-based Minang culture by local communities in Indonesia was recommended by Maswir & Azwar (2014). Similarly travel by Roman Catholics to the Vatican is religious based. As a consequence the factors which motivate and their effects can be similar for Muslims and non-Muslims.

Often culture is represented by countries. This has prompted many researchers to interpret country differences as cultural differences. Although, as argued by Reisinger and Turner (2003) such a definition is limited, and language spoken at home can provide a closer approximation to cultural grouping. The KSA has an intermixture of rich traditional non-Islamic and an Islamic culture. There is no evidence in the literature that Muslims are only interested in visiting sites related to their religion and culture, and Westerners seek night life and entertainment. In the case of the MICE sector, the prime importance is the attraction of the MICE event

itself. This needs to be appealing to both cultures. But MICE participants may spend their spare time or stay after the event to visit places of interest.

Some differences between Muslims and non-Muslims are assumed rather than proven to exist. From the available evidence, it is difficult to conclude that destination decision making by the two groups differ by the content of Islamic culture in the MICE tour. This study will examine whether this is true or not. Comparison of Muslims and non-Muslims for their motivations, perceptions, purpose of visit and destination image can say whether their decision to select the MICE event in the KSA was influenced by culture or religion in any way. The destination decision may be because the desired MICE event was held in the KSA, and therefore there was no choice other than attending for either of the cultural groups. The other option of not attending because it is held in the KSA, a Muslim country is of course more difficult to test and can only be measured indirectly.

The groundwork for a research framework and the actual model are discussed in section 3.7 below.

3.7  TOWARDS  A  MODEL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  KSA  MICE  ATTENDANCE  DECISION