TÉCNICAS PARA ACUMULAR LA ENERGÍA.

Other qualitative studies have focused on understanding the experiences of African American families in therapy in reference to their levels of engagement in treatment. Hall and Sandberg (2012) utilized a phenomenological approach to explore barriers that the participants overcame to seeking therapy from their perspectives. The study consisted of nine participants (5 males and 4 females), self-identified as African American or Black, who sought marriage and family therapy from a couple and family therapy clinic at a major university in the Northeast region of the US. All participants were over the age of 18 and were previous clients at the university therapy center. The location of the interviews was the university therapy center or their own home, lasting between 60-120 minutes.

In examining the results of the study, several codes and themes emerges from the qualitative data. In overcoming the barriers to attend therapy, there were four major categories that were highlighted. These categories were: (1) family and friends, (2) stigma, (3) accessibility, and (4) confidentiality. The following themes were identified, within each category:

 Family and friends: supportive influences and non-supportive influences;  Stigma: personality, openness to needing help, and explorations;

 Accessibility: access and affordability;

 Confidentiality: receiving information and comfort with the camera (Hall & Sandberg, 2012).

Overall, the most significant barrier to overcome was the stigma attached to therapy. African Americans participating in this study attributed much of their successes in overcoming barriers in therapy to their own individual personality traits, such as resiliency, confidence, having a strong work ethic, being open minded and thinking independently (Hall &Sandberg, 2012, p. 453). Participants reported that having a

connection with the university and being employed within the university exposed them to the services that were being offered at the center. Participants also overcame the barrier of cost and finances due to the flexibility of the clinic by providing a sliding fee scale. This suggests that flexibility in costs may be a way to retain and engage Black/African American clients in therapy.

Jackson-Gilfort, Liddle, Tejeda, and Dakof (2001) also conducted research on African American male adolescents in family therapy. The researchers attempted to address the problem of low levels of therapy engagement and participation among African American youth in MDFT. They examined whether and how therapist behavior and content focus within the therapy session influences adolescent engagement into the treatment process. The culturally related content themes of mistrust, anger/rage, alienation, respect, journey from boyhood to manhood, and racial socialization were identified to be utilized for the study. These cultural themes were used as they appear salient in scholarly literature and media sources. It has also been suggested that

intervening in these areas can affect positive adolescent development (Jackson-Gilfort & Liddle, 2000).

To be included in the study, the adolescent had to the meet the following eligibility criteria: randomized to receive MDFT; African American; diagnosed with substance abuse or conduct disorder; participated in therapy sessions that were

videotaped; and received treatment from an African American therapist. Participants in the study were 18 adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17 years old living in

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The mean age of the final sample was 15.1 years, with 50% having been arrested in the past 12 months prior to treatment. Of the total participants, 33% were court-ordered to seek treatment, 52% were from single-parent homes and 33% were receiving public assistance.

The results of the study indicated that culturally relevant content themes (listed above) can improve the level of therapy engagement of Black male adolescent clients. This suggests that infusing such themes into the psychotherapeutic process might be one way to provide better treatment services to African American youth. More thoroughly, it appears addressing angry feelings, sense of alienation and feeling about what it means to be a Black man are discussed directly, the adolescent responds with overall increased engagement in the next therapy sessions. The adolescent is a more active participant in treatment, talking freely, exploring feelings and experiences, and showing esteem towards the therapist (Jackson-Gilfort et al., 2001).

On the contrary, the theme of racial identity/racial socialization showed no relationship with engagement. It did not reach “clinical levels” as the topic area was “brought up but ignored.” More important, there was a negative relationship found

between discussion of trust/mistrust theme and adolescent engagement. This topic of trust was never raised in the content of cultural mistrust; however, the theme emerged

spontaneously in therapy while addressing high levels of conflict with parents on losing trust in their sons. This study clearly highlights the importance of discussing certain “themes” in treatment for African American adolescents that help initiate positive

engagement in family therapy. Further research needs to expand on how these themes can be infused into the treatment process, so that retentions rates of African American

families can be reduced significantly, especially for those who seek treatment and drop out prematurely.

Gantt and Greif (2009) conducted a qualitative study focusing on African American single mothers’ experiences with raising sons. Their study explored the following questions: (1) what are the experiences of African American single mothers in raising of their sons? and (2) what coping strategies do African American single mothers use in raising of their sons? The sample included 11 African American single mothers who were raising at least one son. Nine of the women were raising one son and two were raising two sons. The sons’ ages ranged from 11 to 16, with average mean age of 13.2 years. The mothers ranged in age from 25 to 53 years, with incomes in the $20,000- $30,000 range. All mothers in the study lived in a city in the south-central part of Pennsylvania. The mothers in the study must also have been single for a minimum of 50% of the life of the son. The mothers who had more than one son were asked to describe her experiences with raising all of them during the interviews.

By utilizing appropriate data collection and analysis procedures, the researchers were able to conclude their findings on the phenomenon of the experiences of single

African American mothers raising sons. The findings of this grounded theory study revealed that African American single mothers make use of a number of parenting strategies to assist them in raising their sons. These strategies aim to meet the goals of protecting and promoting growth in their sons. Single African American mothers use the following strategies to protect their sons: (a) shielding from negative influences, (b) avoiding harm, (c) praying, (d) educating, and (e) interpreting. Furthermore, they use other strategies to facilitate growth in their sons: (a) providing social support and

connection with fathers; (b) providing resources; (c) setting expectations; (d) instilling a positive African American identity; and (e) promoting responsibility (Gantt & Greif, 2009, p.231). In sum, African American single mothers implement various parenting strategies aimed towards reaching the goals of protecting and promoting growth in their sons.

Similarly, Kelch-Oliver (2011) recognized the importance of understanding the experiences of African American grandmothers as there is an increase in children being raised in grandparent-headed families (GHF). This increase is often associated with a myriad of interrelated family circumstances and social problems existing in today’s society (Whitley, Kelley, & Sipe, 2001). These include: child maltreatment, parental substance abuse, poverty, homelessness, and the HIV/AIDS epidemic (Kelley, 1993; Whitley et al., 2001). Urban, low- income, single African American women experience GHF at a significantly higher rate than any other racial or ethnic group (Caputo, 2001; Jimenez, 2002; Whitley et al., 2010). As the needs of GHF are unique and complex, it is important to understand their experiences thoroughly from their perspectives. The aim of

this qualitative study was to explore the experiences of African American grandmothers who were the primary caregivers of their grandchildren.

The demographics of the grandparent participants were as follows: there were 6 African American grandmothers who were interviewed; 5 grandmothers were maternal with one great grandmother, who was raising her son’s grandchildren; 5 out of 6 were single (divorced, separated or never married), and one grandmother who was married. The grandfather was not included in the study as he was not involved with the primary caregiving responsibilities. In reference to number of children in the household of the 6 grandmothers, 3 grandmothers were parenting 1-2 grandchildren, 3 grandmothers were parenting 3-4 grandchildren, and no grandmothers were parenting 5 or more

grandchildren. Two of the grandmothers reported raising their children for less than 5 years and 4 grandmothers had been long-term caregivers for 5 or more years. The grandchildren’s age ranged from 10 to 16 years.

The range of the grandmothers’ age was from 45 to 69 years, with one

grandmother from 45-55 years, three 55-65 years, and two were 65+ years. The average age was 55 (5 out of 6 grandmothers). The majority of the grandmothers lived below poverty level (lowest $10,000 to highest $35,000). They received other sources of financial assistance as income, including relative foster care/adoption assistance, social security for disability, social security, retirement/pensions and governmental assistance (i.e. Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, TANF). Last, the reasons the

grandmothers took over the responsibility of caring for their grandchildren were: parental substance abuse, which resulted in neglect or abuse; medical illness; mental/psychiatric

illness; death of mother; teenage pregnancy; and/or eviction/housing problems. The most common reason mentioned for caregiving was substance abuse (Kelch-Oliver, 2011).

Kelch-Oliver’s (2011) phenomenological study identified the following major themes from the interviews that were conducted with the grandmothers: (a) grandparent’s roles/caregiving responsibilities, (b) loss of independence/changes in quality of life when assuming caregiving, (c) ways of coping with caregiving situation, (d) future goals for grandchild(ren), and (e) advice to other grandparents who are raising their grandchildren. The present results of the study indicated that these grandparents experience the

normative adjustment issues associated with parenting for the second time around, which consists of changes in quality of their lives. With these changes, they also reported a newfound purpose and meaning, as well as pride in rescuing grandchildren from the foster care system and maintaining family continuity. The grandmothers’ experiences were characterized by both challenges and rewards. More specifically, consistent themes of single parenthood, fatherlessness, and implications of these family structures in the grandparent/grandchildren’s lives were noted (Kelch-Oliver, 2011). Future research should focus on the experiences of these grandchildren being raised in GHF in which their parents are not involved.

2.5 Theoretical Frameworks

This research study utilized the theoretical frameworks of Narrative theory, Africana womanism theory, along with incorporating tenets of the MCP (Hardy &

Laszloffy, 2002; Hudson-Weems, 1993; White & Epston, 1990). A discussion of the four aggravating factors (devaluation, disruption/erosion of community, dehumanization of loss, and rage) of adolescent violence will also be addressed. These factors will provide a

unique understanding of how societal injustices, such as racism, sexism, classism and other -isms impact the experiences of Black adolescents from underserved communities (Hardy & Laszloffy, 2007).