Capítulo V: Análisis e interpretación de resultados
5.3 Sección 3: Decisiones de acciones a emprender
5.3.1 Reducción a través de medidas técnicas
5.3.1.4 Medidas complementarias al programa
In 1927, W e r n e r H e is e n b e r g p r o v e d t h a t , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r n a tu r e , it is im p o ssib le to m e a s u r e th e m o m e n tu m o f s u b a to m ic p a rtic le s . For e x a m p le , i{ w e w a n t to m e a s u r e t h e p o s itio n o f a n e le c t r o n , w e hav e to a p p ly light o r w e will n o t b e a b le to s e e it. T h e lig h t ( p h o to n ) will e n e r gize th e e le c tro n , in c r e a s in g its v e lo c ity . In o t h e r w o r d s , w e c a n ’t m eas u r e a q u a n tu m p a rtic le w ith o u t d is tu r b in g it.
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waVe fu n c tio n t o c a lc u l a t e h o w a n e le c t r o n is s p r e a d o u t t h r o u g h o u t a s u b ato m ic s p a c e . T h is w a v e f u n c t i o n is a p p lic a b le to all tin y p a rtic le s th a t b e h a v e a s w a v e s , i n c lu d in g q u a r k s . In l a t e r e x p e r i m e n t s , M ax B orn co n firm e d t h a t a n e l e c t r o n s ta y s in o n e p ie c e r a t h e r t h a n s p r e a d s o u t, rew ritin g t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e w a v e f u n c tio n . T o S c h r o d in g e r ’s dism ay , th e w ave f u n c tio n c a m e t o r e p r e s e n t t h e p r o b a b ility o f f in d in g a s u b ato m ic p a r t i c l e a t a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t in s p a c e , r a t h e r t h a n its a c tu a l p o si tion. T h e w a v e f u n c tio n g iv e s s e v e r a l p o s itio n s in w 'hich th e p a rtic le is likely to b e . T h e p a r t i c l e is s a id t o b e s u p e r - p o s itio n e d , m e a n in g it could be in a n y o f s e v e r a l p o s it io n s . T h e n o tio n o f s u p e r- p o s itio n in g h a s b e e n ch a lle n g ed b y m a n y p h y s ic is ts , in c lu d in g E in s te in , b e c a u s e , a c c o rd in g to N e w to n ia n p h y s ic s , a p a r t i c l e c a n b e in o n ly o n e p la c e a t a n y tim e so its p ro b ab ility s h o u ld h a v e o n ly o n e p o s itio n . H o w e v e r, it is e v id e n t th a t c o n v e n tio n a l p h y s ic s c a n ’t e x p la in t h e b e h a v io r o f q u a n tu m p a rtic le s . N iels B o h r r e a s o n e d t h a t t h e n a tu r e o f t h e q u a n tu m p a rtic le is p ro b a bilistic. T h e r e f o r e , it d o e s n o t e x is t in a n y p o s itio n b u t is sim p ly p ro b a b le to ex ist in s e v e ra l. A p p ly in g B o h r ’s th e o r y , n o w k n o w n a s th e C o p e n h a g e n in te r p re ta tio n o f q u a n tu m m e c h a n ic s , w e co u ld say th a t m a t t e r d o e s n o t exist, b u t th e p r o b a b ility o f m a t t e r e x ists. A n d if m a t t e r d o e s n o t exist, sp ace a n d tu n e d o n o t e x ist, a lth o u g h th e p ro b a b ility o f th e m exists.
A p r o b le m a r i s e s w h e n w e m e a s u r e th e p a rtic le . I t th e n c e a s e s to b e s u p e r- p o s itio n e d a n d a p p e a r s in o n ly o n e o f t h e p r o b a b le p o sitio n s. T h is tr a n s itio n is k n o w n in q u a n tu m p h y s ic s a s th e c o lla p s e o f th e wave fu n ctio n . T h e w a v e f u n c tio n in c o r r e c tly giv es s e v e ra l p r o b a b le p o s itio n s w h e n w e k n o w th e p a r tic le t o b e in o n ly o n e . T h is r a is e s th e q u e s tio n th a t is a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e q u a n tu m p ro b le m : H ow d o e s th e p a rtic le pick on e p o sitio n o v e r o t h e r p o s itio n s o f e q u a l p ro b a b ility ?
T h e c o lla p s e fro m a p r o b a b le to a m e a s u r e d s ta t e is th e o riz e d by so m e n o t to b e d e te r m in is tic , b u t r a t h e r a r a n d o m tra n s itio n g o v e rn e d by th e law s o f p ro b a b ility . T h is w o u ld m e a n th a t th e U n iv e rse is ran d o m a n d its fu tu r e c a n ’t b e p r e d ic te d by looking a t its c u r r e n t s ta te , u n less you a re c o n te n t w ith a p ro b a b ilis tic p re d ic tio n . T h e n o n d e te rm in istic n a tu re o f th e U n iv e rse h a s b e e n v ery h a rd fo r p h y sicists to d igest b e c au se , a c co rd in g to classical physics, th e U n iv erse is a m achine-like sy stem th a t is playing o u t a n e x tre m e ly long e n e rg y tra n s fo rm a tio n e n d ing in a s ta te t h a t w a s d e s tin e d th e m o m e n t th e U niverse began.
To fu rth e r com plicate m a tte rs , e x p e rim e n ts have h in te d th a t a m eas u red p a rticle picks th e p o sitio n in a g re e m e n t w ith th e e x p e cta tio n o r guess o f th e o b se rv e r.4 E ith e r th e n a tu r e o f physical m a tte r is subjective o r we do n o t have th e u n d e rs ta n d in g r e q u ir e d to c o n d u c t p ro d uctive q u a n tu m physics r e s e a rc h . To c o m b a t su b jectivity, H ugh E v e re tt put fo rth a so-called m any-w orlds th e o ry , w h ich h o ld s th a t w h e n w e m eas u re a p a rtic le , th e u n iv erse is sp lit in to se v era l p a ra lle l u n iv e rs e s, each holding th e p a rtic le in a d iffe re n t single p o s itio n a n d c o n ta in in g o n e copy o f th e o b se rv e r.'1 A sim ila r t h e o r y h a s b e e n p r e s e n t e d involving consis te n t h isto rie s .6
I p o s tu la te th a t a s th e n a tu r e o f m a t t e r is to b e in s e v e ra l p ro b ab le p laces sim u lta n e o u sly , th is is n o t th e n a tu r e o f h u m a n c o n scio u sn e ss. T h e h u m an m in d c a n ’t h a n d le th e c o n c e p t o f a p ro b a b ility -b a s e d reality. It n e e d s a s ta b le re a lity in o r d e r to f u n c tio n . T h e h u m a n m in d th e re fo re tak e s th e p a rtic le a n d fo rc e s it in to a sin g le p o s itio n . T h is w o u ld m ean t h a t in e v e ry in s ta n t, y o u d e c id e th e p o s itio n o f t h e p a r tic le s a ro u n d you.
D o es th is s o u n d fa m ilia r? T h is is e x a c tly h o w a s tr a l “m a t t e r ” w o rk s. It m oves to y o u r t h o u g h ts a n d e x p e c ta tio n s . W h a t is t h e differen ce b e tw e en th e p h y sic a l a n d th e a s t r a l ? T h e lin e b e tw e e n t h e ph y sical and th e n o n p h y sic a l is g e ttin g b l u r r e d b e c a u s e t h e p h y s ic a l a n d th e n o n p hy s ical a r e b u ilt f ro m t h e s a m e stu ff, a s tu f f t h a t c a n b e fo u n d e v e ry w h e re th ro u g h o u t e x is te n c e . O n e is n o t h i g h e r o r b e t t e r t h a n th e o th e r. They a re d iffe re n t a s p e c ts o f t h e s a m e th in g , o r d if f e r e n t w a y s o f looking at th e s a m e th in g , o r d iff e re n t w a y s to g iv e d i f f e r e n t im p r e s s io n s o f th e s a m e th in g —h o w e v e r you w a n t to lo o k a t it. T h is t h in g is w h a t w e call t h e a s tr a l e n e rg y fie ld f o r lac k o f a b e t t e r w o r d .
An in te r e s tin g p a ra lle l is t h a t o f d ig ita l c lo c k s . H a v e y o u e v e r looked a t y o u r b e d s id e c lo ck to f in d it s a y in g 2 :2 2 , 3 : 3 3 , o r 4 : 4 4 ? T h is h ap pens to m e a lm o s t e v e ry n ig h t. It m a y s e e m lik e a c o in c id e n c e , b u t in light of th e C o p e n h a g e n i n te r p r e t a t i o n , it is n o t. A s tim e a n d m a t t e r a r e rela te d , tim e is also s u p e r- p o s itio n e d . It tic k s f o r t h in e q u a l s e c o n d s on ly if you m e a s u re th e m o v e m e n t o f th e c lo c k . O th e r w is e , f o r all y o u know , time co u ld slow clown o r s p e e d u p . W h e n y o u w a k e u p d u r in g th e nig h t, the tim e co u ld b e a n y th in g b e tw e e n m id n ig h t a n d m o r n in g . By lo oking a t the clock, y o u r m in d g e ts c o n fu s e d by fin d in g t h a t tim e h a s a w h o le ran g e of p o ssib le s im u lta n e o u s v a lu e s . It q u ic k ly d e c id e s t h a t tim e should be
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