The strength of this study is that the single professional services organization in which we examined the hypothesized model consists of different businesses: Tax, Assurance, Advisory and Transactions. Those different departments drive business in different ways, with their own values, rules and procedures. The organization in this case not only focuses on different businesses but subsequently also on different sectors (e.g., Start-Ups, Fast-Moving-Consumer-Goods sector, and Public Sector). Therefore, a strength of this study is that our sample consists of different businesses departments, and thus it can be said that the findings are generalizable in other sectors. Also, the workforce in organization X is characterized by different nationalities with their own culture and values-and-beliefs orientations (Liao & Chuang, 2007). Thus, our findings are presumably replicable in various other cultures. Moreover, we reduced the common-method bias by using Harman's (1961) single factor technique. Lastly, employees rated the level of EI amongst their leaders. By asking employees’ perception of their leader’s level of EI, we reduced Williams’ (1998) notion that it might be possible that a leader is emotionally intelligent but if their non-managerial employees perceive their leader’s level of EI differently, their influence of EI on employees might well be limited. A leader might believe that they make an effort to listen, to understand, and to take into consideration the experience of others, but if that does not translate into a ‘reality’ for their employees then it is of limited benefit.
Despite its strengths, the present study has a number of limitations. The first limitation is the common-method bias, because our study consists of one single source. Future studies must rely on multiple sources in order to increase the confidence in the results. A second limitation is that the
37 outcomes of the dependent variables, job performance and work engagement, are based on subjective data; the perceptions of employees. In order to gain more reliable outcomes, we need to examine this hypothesized model with more objective measurements (e.g. employees’ performance ratings, sales numbers, turn over ratings, or client satisfaction ratings). Third, although we reduced the social-desirability bias of a leader’s EI, this study may still suffer from it. Future research should include more objective measurements or assessments of employee performance/engagement by the perception of their leader. Fourth, our study may suffer from non-response bias because the response rate of the survey was low. An explanation of this low rating could be that the case company has their own yearly engagement survey. The response rate of this survey was 55%, and was distributed two months before our survey. Fifth, this study focused only on psychological capital of the employees, and did not assess the degree of a leader’s psychological capital involved. Accordingly, Walumbwa et al. (2010) stated that a leader’s psychological capital also affects employees’ job performance. Thus, future research should not only concentrate on psychological capital of employees but also on a leader’s psychological capital. Sixth, the survey data was collected at one point in time. Therefore, it is difficult to establish causal relationships among the variables, as well as reverse causality. Thus, longitudinal studies are recommended. This future research option should investigate data from different periods in time, in order to reveal how the mechanisms occur over a longer period of time. Finally, this research concentrates only on emotionally intelligent leaders. Employees who exhibit a high level of EI may be even important as emotionally intelligent leaders. Wu (2011) found that emotionally intelligent employees positively impact their own job performance. Besides, an employee who scores high on EI is more likely to be able to reduce and transform negative impacts of job stress on job performance. Also, next to an emotionally intelligent leader, also colleagues who score high on EI may impact
38 employees’ perceived service climate. Future research must elaborate further on the linkages between a leader’s EI and levels of EI among their employees. The question on how emotionally intelligent leaders influence not only the service climate and employees’ psychological capital, but also bolster psychological capital and EI among employees, must be analyzed further.
6
Conclusion
Present work highlights the principles of the COR theory on how individual employees utilize resources that are available to them. This study provides empirical support, especially in the field of professional services organizations, that EI is one of the “key” employee resources (Halbesleben et al., 2014). This social “key” job resource, in turn, relates to two other types of employee resources: perceived climate and employees’ psychological capital. This paper answers recent calls within organization-studies to investigate how a leader’s EI is linked towards employee job outcomes at the individual level: through service climate and psychological capital. The findings provide evidence that, given the positive impact of a leader’s EI on professional service employees and subsequently the firm’s clients, professional services organizations are likely to benefit from these leaders by their ability of promoting a strong climate of service among their employees. This climate contributes to their so-called psychological capital and in turn to both high job performance and work engagement, and as a means of enabling employees to ultimately deliver ‘exceptional client services’. However, longitudinal research is recommended, in order to reveal causal relationships of the hypothesized model. All in all, our study provides a fundamental basis for further research on how specific job resources unveil employees’ performance outcomes, based on the COR-theory. Finally our study provides practical implications on how service workers, clients and (professional services) organizations benefit from high emotionally intelligent leaders.
39
7
References
Acha, V., Hargiss, K. M., & Howard, C. 2013. The relationship between emotional intelligence of a leader and employee motivation to job performance. International Journal of Strategy
Information Technology and Applications,4(4), 80-103.
Allam, D. Z. (2011). Emotional intelligence at workplace: A psychological review. Global
Management Review, 5(2), 71-80.
Auh, S., Bowen, D. E., Aysuna, C., & Menguc, B. (2016). A search for missing links: specifying the relationship between leader-member exchange differentiation and service climate. Journal
of Service Research, 19(3), 260–275.
Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., & Luthans, F. (2011). Experimentally analyzing the impact of leader positivity on follower positivity and performance. TheLeadership Quarterly, 22(2), 282–294. Avolio, B. J., & Gardner, W. L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of
positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(3), 315-338.
Awwad, M. S., & Ali, H. K. (2012). Emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial orientation: the moderating role of organizational climate and employees’ creativity. Journal of Research in
Marketing and Entrepreneurship, 14(1), 115–136.
Bakker, A. B., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2008). Positive organizational behavior: Engaged employees in flourishing organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 29(2), 147-154.
Barbier, M., Hansez, I., Chmiel, N., & Demerouti, E. (2012). Performance expectations, personal resources, and job resources: How do they predict work engagement? European Journal of
Work and Organizational Psychology, 22(6), 750–762.
Barbuto, J. E., Gottfredson, R. K., & Searle, T. P. (2014). An Examination of Emotional Intelligence as an Antecedent of Servant Leadership. Journal of Leadership & Organizational
40
Studies , 21(3), 315–323.
Baron, R. A. (1993). Interviewers??? Moods and evaluations of job applicants: The role of applicant qualifications. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23(4), 253–271.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.
Bernstein, C., & Volpe, S. (2016). The implications of sex role identity and psychological capital for organisations: A South African study. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 42(1), 1–12. Bono, J. E., & Judge, T. A. (2003). Self-concordance at work: Toward understanding the
motivational effects of transformational leaders. Academy of Management Journal, 46(5), 554–571.
Bowen, D. E., & Schneider, B. (2014). A service climate synthesis and future research agenda.
Journal of Service Research, 17(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670513491633
Brouer, R. L., Gallagher, V. C., & Badawy, R. L. (2016). Ability to manage resources in the impression management process: The mediating effects of resources on job performance.
Journal of Business and Psychology, 31(4), 515–531.
Brunetto, Y., Teo, S. T. T., Shacklock, K., & Farr-Wharton, R. (2012). Emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, well-being and engagement: Explaining organisational commitment and turnover intentions in policing. Human Resource Management Journal, 22(4), 428–441.
Carmeli, A., & Waldman, D. A. (2010). Leadership, behavioral context, and the performance of work groups in a knowledge-intensive setting. Journal of Technology Transfer, 35(4), 384– 400.
41 empowerment, and organizational support on catering service staff performance. Hospitality
Management, 25(6), 478–495.
Conger, J. A., & Pearce, C. L. (2003). A landscape of opportunities: Future research on shared leadership. In Shared Leadership Reframing the Hows and Whys of Leadership (pp. 285– 303).
Crawford, E. R., Lepine, J. A., & Rich, B. L. (2010). Linking job demands and resources to employee engagement and burnout: A theoretical extension and meta-analytic test. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 95(5), 834–848.
Dabke, D. (2016). Impact of leaders emotional intelligence and transformational behavior on perceived leadership effectiveness: A multiple source view. Business Perspectives and
Research, 4(1), 27–40
Dasborough, M. T., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2002). Emotion and attribution of intentionality in leader-member relationships. TheLeadership Quarterly, 13(5), 615–634.
Druskat, V. U., & Wolff, S. B. (2001). Building the emotional intelligence of groups. Harvard
Business Review, 79(3), 80–90, 164.
Du Plessis, M., Wakelin, Z., & Nel, P. (2015). The influence of emotional intelligence and trust on servant leadership. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 41(1), 1–9.
Dutton, J., & Heaphy, E. (2003). The power of high-quality connections. Positive Organizational
Scholarship: Foundations of a New Discipline, 263-278.
Deci, E. L., Connell, J. P., Ryan. R. M. (1989). Self-determination in a work organization. Journal
of Applied Psychology, 74(4), 580–590.
Emery, C. (2012). Uncovering the role of emotional abilities in leadership emergence. A longitudinal analysis of leadership networks. Social Networks, 34(4), 429–437.
42 Fairlie, P. (2011). Meaningful work, employee engagement, and other key employee outcomes: Implications for human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources,
13(4), 508–525.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The Role of Positive Emotions in Positive Psychology. The Broaden- and-Built Theory of Positive Emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226.
George, J. M. (2000). Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence. Human
Relations, 53(8), 1027–1055.
Gibbs, P. C., & Cooper, C. L. (2011). Fostering a positive organizational culture and climate in an economic downturn. In: Ashkanasy, N. M., Wilderom, C. P. M., & Peterson, M. F. (Eds.),
The Handbook of Organizational Culture and Climate (2nd ed., pp. 119-136). Thousand Oaks:
Sage,
Global People Survey (2015), Erst and Young.
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 9(5), 1091– 1100.
Halbesleben, J. R. B., Neveu, J.-P., Paustian-Underdahl, S. C., & Westman, M. (2014). Getting to the “COR”: Understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory. Journal
of Management, 40(5), 1334–1364.
Harman, H. H. (1976). Modern factor analysis. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: A meta-analysis.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(2), 268–279.
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. The
43 Hong, Y., Liao, H., Hu, J., & Jiang, K. (2013). Missing link in the service profit chain: A meta-
analytic review of the antecedents, consequences, and moderators of service climate. The
Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(2), 237–67.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A
Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55.
Hur, Y., van den Berg, P. T., & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2011). Transformational leadership as a mediator between emotional intelligence and team outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly,
22(4), 591–603.
Ilieska, K. (2016). Measurement of customer satisfaction and loyalty as a base for company success in the competitive environment. Annals of “Constantin Brancusi” University of Targu-Jiu.
Economy Series, (1), 5–12.
Jacobs, T. O. (1970). Leadership and exchange in formal organizations. The ANNALS of the
American Academy of Political and Social Science, 409(1), 231–231.
Jiang, Z. (2016). Emotional intelligence and career decision-making self-efficacy: Mediating roles of goal commitment and professional commitment. Journal of Employment Counseling,
53(1), 30–47.
Jordan, P. J., & Troth, A. C. (2002). Emotional intelligence and conflict resolution: implications for human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 4(1), 62–79. Joseph, D. L., & Newman, D. A. (2010). Emotional intelligence: An integrative meta-analysis and
cascading model. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(1), 54–78.
Jung, H. S., & Yoon, H. H. (2015). The impact of employees’ positive psychological capital on job satisfaction and organizational citizenship behaviors in the hotel. International Journal of
44
Contemporary Hospitality Management, 27(6), 1135–1156.
Kadic-Maglajlic, S., Vida, I., Obadia, C., & Plank, R. (2016). Clarifying the influence of emotional intelligence on salesperson performance. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 31(7), 877–888.
Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work.
The Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692.
Kerr, R., Garvin, J., Heaton, N., & Boyle, E. (2006). Emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 27(4), 265–279.
Kersting, K. (2003). Turning happiness into economic power. Monitor on Psychology, 34(11), 26 Kluemper, D. H., McLarty, B. D., Bishop, T. R., & Sen, A. (2015). Interviewee selection test and
evaluator assessments of general mental ability, emotional intelligence and extraversion: Relationships with structured behavioral and situational interview performance. Journal of
Business and Psychology, 30(3), 543–563.
Kovjanic, S., Schuh, S. C., Jonas, K., Quaquebeke, N. Van, & Van Dick, R. (2012). How do transformational leaders foster positive employee outcomes? A self-determination-based analysis of employees’ needs as mediating links. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(8), 1031–1052.
Kozlowski, S. W., & Doherty, M. L. (1989). Integration of climate and leadership: Examination of a neglected issue. Journal of Applied Psychology, 74(4), 546–553.
Kuenzi, M., & Schminke, M. (2009). Assembling Fragments Into a Lens: A Review, Critique, and Proposed Research Agenda for the Organizational Work Climate Literature. Journal of
Management, 35(3), 634–717.
45 attitudes. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 13(2), 75–92.
Liao, H., & Chuang, A. (2007). Transforming service employees and climate: a multilevel, multisource examination of transformational leadership in building long-term service relationships. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(4), 1006–19.
Lips-Wiersma, M., & Morris, L. (2009). Discriminating between “meaningful work” and the “management of meaning.” Journal of Business Ethics, 88(3), 491–511.
Liu, X. L. J., & Liu, X. L. J. (2013). Effects of team leader emotional intelligence and team emotional climate on team member job satisfaction: A cross-level. Nankai Business Review
International, 4(3).
Lu, L., Liu, L., Sui, G., & Wang, L. (2015). The associations of job stress and organizational identification with job satisfaction among Chinese police officers: The mediating role of psychological capital. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,
12(12), 15088–15099.
Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., Norman, S. M., & Combs, G. M. (2006). Psychological capital development: Toward a micro-intervention. Journal of Organizational Behavior,
27(3), 387–393
Luthans, F., Avolio, B. J., Avey, J. B., & Norman, S. M. (2007). Positive psychological capital: Measurement and relationship with performance and satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 60, 541-572.
Luthans, F., & Youssef, C. M. (2004). Human, social, and now positive psychological capital management: Investing in people for competitive advantage. Organizational Dynamics, 33(2), 143–160.
46 University Press.
Macey, W. H., & Schneider, B. (2008). The meaning of employee engagement. Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, 1, 3–30.
Mahon, E. G., Taylor, S. N., & Boyatzis, R. E. (2014). Antecedents of organizational engagement: Exploring vision, mood and perceived organizational support with emotional intelligence as a moderator. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1322.
Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H. W. (2006). Academic resilience and its psychological and educational correlates: A construct validity approach. Psychology in the Schools, 43(3), 267–281.
May, D. R., Gilson, R. L., & Harter, L. M. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of
Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(1), 11–37.
Mayer, D., Ehrhart, M., & Schneider, B. (2009). Service attribute boundary conditions of the service climate-customer satisfaction link. Academy of Management Journal, 52(5), 1034– 1050.
Mayer, J. D., Roberts, R. D., & Barsade, S. G. (2008). Human Abilities: Emotional Intelligence.
Annual Review of Psychology, 59(1), 507–536.
Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? Emotional Development and
Emotional Intelligence, 3-34.
Miao, C., Humphrey, R. H., & Qian, S. (2016). Leader emotional intelligence and subordinate job satisfaction: A meta-analysis of main, mediator, and moderator effects. Personality and
Individual Differences, 102, 13–24.
Newman, D. a., & Harrison, D. a. (2008). Been there, bottled that: Are state and behavioral work engagement new and useful construct “wines”? Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
47
1(1), 31–35.
Norman, S. M., Avolio, B. J., & Luthans, F. (2010). The impact of positivity and transparency on trust in leaders and their perceived effectiveness. TheLeadership Quarterly, 21(3), 350–364. Ölcer, F., Florescu, M. S., & Nastase, M. (2014). The effects of transformational leadership and
emotional intelligence of managers on organizational citizenship behaviors of employees.
Review of International Comparative Management, 15(4), 385–401.
Palmer, B., Walls, M., Burgess, Z., & Stough, C. (2001). Emotional intelligence and effective leadership. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 22(1), 5–10.
Parker, S. K., & Griffin, M. A. (2011). Understanding active psychological states: Embedding engagement in a wider nomological net and closer attention to performance. European
Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20(1), 60–67.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal
of applied psychology, 88(5), 879.
Qadeer, F., & Jaffery, H. (2014). Mediation of psychological capital between organizational climate and organizational citizenship behavior. Pakistan Journal of Commerce and Social
Sciences, 8(2), 453–470.
Randall, M. L., Cropanzano, R., Bormann, C. a, & Birjulin, A. (1999). Organizational politics and organizational support as predictors of work attitudes, job performance, and organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(2), 159–174.
Riggio, R. E., & Lee, J. (2007). Emotional and interpersonal competencies and leader development. Human Resource Management Review, 17(4), 418–426.
48 motivation. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78.
Salanova, M., Agut, S., & Peiró, J. M. (2005). Linking organizational resources and work engagement to employee performance and customer loyalty: the mediation of service climate.
The Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1217–1227.
Salanova, M., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2008). A cross-national study of work engagement as a mediator between job resources and proactive behaviour. International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 19(1), 116–131.
Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition, and
Personality, 9(3), 185–211.
Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & Salanova, M. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire: a cross-national study. Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 66(4), 701–716.
Schaufeli, W. B., Salanova, M., Gon Alez-ro, V. A., & Bakker, A. B. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of
Happiness Studies, 3, 71–92.
Schleicher, D. J., Hansen, S. D., & Fox, K. E. (2011). Job Attitudes and work values. In APA