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two distinct phases: the PhD and the early postdoctoral career. Laudel and Glaser (2008) indeed see the transition to independent researcher as starting with a successful PhD topic which is expanded and supplemented by new topics; and Bazeley (2003) sees completing high-level research training as one of the key steps to becoming an independent researcher. However, in drawing from the career development literature for

researchers, it would seem that there is no single route, or clearly defined career pathway to becoming a recognised and independent researcher; and the phase from PhD to the early postdoctoral career is the one that appears particularly challenging. Simmonds and Unger (1980) describe

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an ideal society where researchers could anticipate progression through an established career; and in an atmosphere of security instead of being reliant of short-term grants, and wasting incalculable hours submitting grant application after grant application.

In the case of biomedical scientists in the UK, Kidd and Green (2004) see the employment route, and the three primary sectors (the academic, charity/research council, and pharmaceutical) as the principal means to support the early career researcher. For physician-researchers, Bakken et al., (2006) describe a dual career choice – that is, beginning their career as a clinician, then going on to develop an interest in a research career pathway. These are met through a variety of ways, including gaining an academic position and balancing this with clinical work and clinical research.

For early-career researchers based in academia, Bazeley (2003) offers no single path for an academic-researcher en route to becoming an

established researcher; but she does see a sequence of steps, including: completing high-level research training and obtaining an academic appointment.

While the focus of the literature here is on the career development for early-career researchers in developing countries, the principles of career development for the early-career researcher in Africa (and elsewhere) are much the same. The transition from early-career researcher to

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universal for early-career researchers globally. The only difference for the career-researcher in Africa and other developing countries might be the lack of similar opportunity afforded to their counterparts in developed countries.

Challenges for early-career researchers

There are many challenges faced by the early-career researcher as they navigate their path from PhD to early postdoctoral career. One of the biggest is securing the funding to continue with their research career. Bazeley (2003) points out how the new investigators who, as yet unknown in their research community and without an established track record of attracting funding, are still having to compete for funding in an arena with established researchers. Yet, if they are to realise their full potential and achieve their goal of becoming recognised and independent researchers, they must compete and spend hours submitting grant

applications. In addition, Kidd and Green (2004) point out how

fragmented the funding structures have become in biomedical science in the UK – which also has an impact on the goals of career research scientists in this field, with many not committing to stay in research. For early-career researchers, the chances of securing funding are often increased with being part of a research collaboration – and for the African early-career researcher, with the scientific research tradition that is well established in the industrialised countries in the north but still being developed in the developing countries in the south (Nchinda, 2002), the

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research collaboration for funding often necessitates the inclusion of a research partner based in a developed country in the north.

Laudel and Glaser (2008) see the challenge of collaboration for funding as creating pressure for early-career researchers to adapt the research to the preferences of senior researchers, collaborating partners and funding agencies. However, while this is seen as a challenge for early-career researchers, it should be noted that directives in application for funding is a challenge that is faced by most researchers. Dillon (2003) notes how the rigid and hierarchical structures in most European academic

organisations and funding agencies do little to foster intellectual independence amongst young researchers.

Finding employment to support a research career is another challenge faced by early-career researchers. Bazeley (2003, pg. 264) described how the researchers in her study, in search of academic appointments

complained of having to "continually move from institution to institution on contracts lasting one year or less" – and how this impacted on their ability to apply for research grants. Kidd and Green (2004) also show how fixed-term contracts for UK-based biomedical early-career

researchers (of three years duration or less) led to concerns of damaging scientists‟ careers, creating wastage of effort and skill, promoting personal insecurity and contributing to an exploitative employment system which undermines career development and commitment.

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Marnie, Chantal and Davorin (2009, pg. 11) illustrate how in a study of career pathways of science, engineering and technology, research postgraduates in Australia found themselves caught up in the “postdoc treadmill”, unable to find long-term employment, and with some of them finding themselves either out of work or working out of their field of expertise.

The challenges faced by the early-career researcher to attain academic or research-related employment is something that is particularly pertinent in Sub-Saharan Africa. Little movement within academia, and challenges in finding employment or an institution in which to situate research projects, is seen as one of the challenges facing the early-career researcher.

Support for early-career researchers

The need to support early-career researchers is something that is being recognised constantly. For European postdoctoral researchers, Dillon (2003) reports how the European Union Fixed-Term Contract Directive (EU, 1999) was implemented to prevent abuse of using fixed-term

contracts – for example, using successive contracts to avoid permanency. He discusses the use of scientific career structures such as, a postdoctoral system that promotes mobility in the early part of the researcher‟s career followed by tenure-track appointments; and the creation of an additional grade of permanent researcher below the level of principal investigator to alleviate the bottleneck.

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From a UK perspective of postdoctoral researchers based in academia, the “SET for Success” report (Roberts, 2002) recommended the move to longer-term “research staff” status from short-term “contract researcher” status. This report also recommended the introduction of skills training for PhD researchers – to help promote the high-level research training that Bazeley (2003) sees as one of the key steps to becoming an independent researcher; in addition to help build the skills, knowledge and confidence that the early-career researcher needs in order to progress their career.

Fellowship awards aimed at early researchers are another way of helping to support the early-career researcher. Bazeley (2003) describes a funding scheme initiated by the Australian Research Council (ARC) to support early-career researchers build a career in academic research, while awards from the United States include awards from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), and the Careers Award in the Biomedical Sciences (CABS) from the Burroughs Wellcome Fund – which provides career development support for the transition from postdoctoral training to a faculty position. In the UK, the Wellcome Trust offers awards and studentships for early-career researchers; and includes intermediate fellowships (for promising researchers wishing to develop research independence) and postdoctoral fellowships for African career

researchers in biomedical sciences and tropical medicine, from low and middle income countries. TDR – the Special Programme for Research

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and Training in Tropical Diseases, supported by the World Health

Organization (WHO) also provides awards to help with the academic and career development for postdoctoral researchers in Africa. Other

postdoctoral awards also include fellowship awards as part of donor- funded projects, such as the aforementioned Gates Malaria Partnership (GMP) re-entry grant programme – which is designed to support early- career researchers in Sub-Saharan Africa.

This provision of grants by funding bodies to support early-career

researchers on career entry reflects recognition by these organisations that researchers (especially when returning to a developing country) need support if they are to develop successful careers. However, financial support alone may not be sufficient, or as effective in this complex arena, where certain skills may also be required, in order to help with

networking, developing mastery of own destiny, and navigating a boundaryless or hybrid career – perhaps within traditional, hierarchical settings. Additional support may be required to help the early-career researcher learn some of these skills; and in this research study Personal Development Planning (PDP) is explored as one approach to provide a group of early-career researchers in Africa with the additional support needed to help progress their career development.

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DEVELOPING PDP FOR A SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN CONTEXT