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Careers within developing countries have seen a shift from a succession of related jobs arranged in a hierarchy of prestige that people work through in an ordered sequence (Wilensky, 1961, cited in Baruch, 2006), to the focus placed on the individual and their work-related experiences” over the span of their “work life” (Hall, 1987, pg.1; Arthur and Rousseau,

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1996), to extending beyond a working life as it forms “a unique pattern over the individual‟s life span” (Sullivan and Baruch,2009, pg. 1543). As a result of these shifts, and changes such as increased globalisation, rapid technological advances and increased diversity within the

workplace and the workforce (part-time, temporary employees and people working for themselves) attitudes and behaviours towards career and models of careers have changed (Sullivan and Baruch, 2009). Dominant in the literature of career management and development is the “boundaryless” career model, as seen by Arthur (1994). The thinking within this model is a move away from the traditional linear career model that typically took place within a single organisation (Hall and Mirvis, 1995; McDonald et al., 2005; Sullivan and Baruch, 2009) to a model that sees the career transcending the boundary of a single path, occupation and employer. At the core of this “boundaryless” career model is career independence.

Also found within the literature, is the “protean” career model – which is proactively managed proactively by individuals, according to their own values (Sargent and Domberger, 2007), has the individual (rather than the organisation) taking responsibility for transforming their own career path (Hall and Mirvis, 1995); and the psychological focus rather than material success as being the main goal of a protean careerist (Hall, 2002, cited in Sullivan and Baruch, 2009).

Chapter 2 – Literature Review

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While these two career models appear similar, the concepts are viewed in a variety of ways – as complementary (Inkson, 2006); distinct but

overlapping (Briscoe and Hall, 2006) or as two distinct constructs.

Career models and research scientists

Baruch and Hall (2004) argue that the scientific research career is typical of the modern “boundaryless” career model, in that there are some distinct features that support this career model. For example, a

professional basis, multi-directional career paths, a high degree of lateral movement across organisational boundaries, and a strong dependency on network. This observation is supported by the reality that the career development of a scientific researcher is reliant on at least some of these features – and particularly on the strong dependency on network – as seen later in the research where some of the researchers in the study identify networking with other researchers a skill that is needed to help them with their career development.

While the “boundaryless” career model can be seen to typify the career model of the career researcher, Sommerlund and Boutaiba (2007) found in their research study with scientists in a molecular biology laboratory in Denmark that, rather than the “boundaryless” career replacing the

traditional career model, the career of these research scientists were supported by a mix of the “old” traditional career models (pre-

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career models – thus supporting the assertion that (in some organisations at least) traditional career models do still exist (Guest and McKenzie- Davey, 1996; Reitman and Schneer, 2003), are still valued (King, 2006), can exist alongside each other, and be supported within the same

organisation (McDonald, Brown and Bradley (2005).

This finding is also supported within this research study of the African research scientists based in SSA, where some of these research scientists manage what Sullivan and Baruch (2009) refer to as a “hybrid” career model – which contain aspects of both the traditional and “protean” or “boundaryless” career concepts. For example, the African researchers who have positions (and aspects of a traditional career) within a university, their National Health Services, or national research

institutions, whilst still having some aspects of protean and boundaryless careers through proactively managing independent research with

employers outside of their organisation.

Career management and early-career researchers

Despite the “boundaryless” career having a place within a career research pathway, and the model that most fits the economic necessity of the changing workplace, Zeitz et al., (2009) point out that, in order for an individual to have a successful boundaryless career, there are required needs for certain management behaviours, attitudes and support.

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Baruch (2006) suggests that if people are to thrive in a “boundaryless” career world, they need to become “masters of their own destiny, and thus managers of their own careers” (pg. 127); and to achieve this they need to acquire career resilience – something that Kidd and Green (2004) see as linked to work-place autonomy. In addition to resilience and adaptability, proactivity is seen as a major element needed for career development within this model. Proactive traits in this context are cited as: personal initiative; need for achievement; internal locus of control; autonomy and extroversion (cited in Zeitz et al., 2009); and with self- esteem and self-efficacy also seen as important (Crant, 2000).

However, it should be noted that for an early-career researcher, while they might have some autonomy and independence in the way they work, they may not necessarily possess the proactive traits and behaviours that are needed to manage a successful “boundaryless” career.

Applying a “protean” career approach (proactively managing one‟s career according to own values) is put forward as a suggestion to help promote success within a “boundaryless” career model (Baruch, 2006). However, the self-directed behaviour of the protean career model (Baruch and Hall, 2004) and the associated characteristics of self-confidence, assertiveness, perseverance, and the tendency to self-rate and self-promote (McDonald et al., 2005) might also be seen as challenges for the early-career

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possess these skills and behaviours at this stage of their research careers, but they are also at the stage of their careers where there is still the need for significant dependence on others to help with their career progression – which could have an effect on the rate in which the much needed skills, such as self-confidence and self-promotion are developed.

In addition, Seibert, Kraimer and Crant, (2001) see a proactive person as one who has a disposition to take personal initiative and is relatively unconstrained by situational forces. This presents a problem for the early-career researcher (particularly but not exclusively) in Africa, whose situational forces are often beyond their control, and have a greater influence on their career.

CAREER DEVELOPMENT FOR EARLY-CAREER RESEARCHERS