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Studies have examined the relationship between positive emotions, self-regulation and improved learning and academic achievement (Drake, Belsky & Pasco Fearon 2014:1352; Villavicencio & Bernardo 2013:331). In every classroom there are students who are more independent than their classmates. These students are eager to begin working, are actively involved in their own learning process, can match the task to the needed study behaviour and often plan how to accomplish assigned tasks. Researchers have coined the term ‘self-regulated learner’ to depict the proactive nature of such students' approaches to learning. These students seek assistance from peers and teachers, exhibit effective time management skills, are goal directed and self-motivated. By being able to resist distraction, manage frustration, focus attention and persist at difficult tasks, these students are more likely to experience a greater sense of self- efficacy when dealing with challenges. They gain greater intrinsic satisfaction and extrinsic reward from their successes and are better able to manage the emotions associated with setbacks. Too often, however, these competencies are not cultivated in all students. Emphasising short-term mastery goals without attending to students' development of strategic learning skills can adversely affect what students think about their own ability to develop understanding and what it means to learn. This could ultimately limit their competence as problem solvers and self-regulated learners (Bell &

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Pape 2014:23; Cerna & Pavliushchenko 2015:45; Drake et al. 2014:1352) and could therefore lead to decreased academic achievement.

Emotional self-regulation is defined by Shaffer and Kipp (2014:375) as “the controlling of emotions”. Cognitive self-regulation is also important. According to social cognitive theory, there are three phases of self-regulation: forethought, performance, and self- reflection (Bell & Pape 2014:24). Students who are self-regulating, and who experience enjoyment and pride during the learning task, are more than likely to value both the task and the outcomes thereof. They have the knowledge, skills and disposition to accomplish the academic goals that they set for themselves. They are thus more likely to attain higher levels of learning achievement. On the other hand, self-regulating students who do not experience enjoyment and pride in a task may not value the task and the outcomes. In this case, self-regulation could still lead to academic achievement, but not at the same levels as with students who experience task enjoyment and pride (Bell & Pape 2014:24; Villavicencio & Bernardo 2013:331-332).

Another concept which is closely linked to self-regulation is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is concerned with a person's beliefs in his or her capabilities to learn or perform a behaviour or a task (Anderman & Anderman 2014:7; Bjornebekk, Diseth, Ulriksen 2013:772-773; Joo, Kim, Kim & Chung 2011:262; Mega, Ronconi & De Beni 2013:122- 123). Caprara et al. (2011:81) offer another definition of self-efficacy stating that it is the judgements people hold about their capabilities to organise and affect courses of action which are needed to attain given goals. Students who believe they are capable are more likely to be self-regulating. They try to understand their academic work, and to plan, monitor, and regulate assignments.

Research has focused on the two different facets of self-efficacy in students namely (a) the perceived ability to successfully master specific academic subjects and curricula areas, and (b) the perceived ability to self-regulate study by planning and organising study times and activities, motivating themselves to fulfil their school assignments and

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pursuing academic activities when there are other interesting things to do. Both facets of self-efficacy exert a notable influence on learning, academic achievement and career choices as they sustain effort, persistence and aspirations (Caprara et al. 2011:81).

Many educational researchers argue that academic self-efficacy is one of the most important internal variables related to academic achievement (Joo et al. 2011:262). Studies on perceived academic self-efficacy and student learning have confirmed that perceived self-efficacy impacts on students' aspirations, levels of interest in academic pursuit, academic accomplishments and how well they prepare themselves for different occupational careers. A meta-analysis of 39 research findings confirmed the positive influence of academic self-efficacy on academic success and persistence (Abd- Elmotaleb & Saha 2013:117-118).

The relationship between academic self-efficacy and academic performance can also be understood from the perspective that students with a high sense of efficacy have the capacity to accept more challenging tasks. They have a high ability to organise their time and show increased persistence in the face of obstacles. They often show lower anxiety levels and more flexibility in the use of learning strategies and have the ability to adapt to different educational environments (Abd-Elmotaleb & Saha 2013:125-126). This often translates into increased academic achievements.

With particular reference to secondary school, research indicates that academic achievement at the end of primary school significantly contributed to later perceived academic self-efficacy in secondary school. Academic self-efficacy beliefs contributed more to academic achievement in secondary schools than in primary schools. In high school students need to have confidence in their capacity to regulate their own learning and to manage the various scholastic activities and relations with teachers and peers. This needs to happen if one is to nurture the motivation needed to realise one’s own potential and ultimately achieve academic achievement (Caprara et al. 2011:91).

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Self-efficacy is not only important at school. In studies conducted with first year university students, it was found that the level of self-efficacy that these students reported during their first year was a powerful predictor of academic performance. Students who enter college with confidence in their ability to perform well academically perform significantly better than others with less self-efficacy (Mega et al. 2013:122- 123). They are able to sustain the cognitive, affective and motivational processes that lead to successful academic achievement (Caprara et al. 2011:79).

In summary, self-regulation and self-efficacy can positively predict academic achievement.