Tabla comparativa de escenarios

The first ethical challenge occurs as a result of the political value described in section 3.3d. People living in a community where road quality is bad and using the participatory sensing system actively in order to take responsibility over deteriorating roads might start to feel more autonomous and believe they can improve the road quality through a joint communal effort. However, the effectivity and safety of solving road quality issues through communal effort rather

than professional road maintenance by road maintenance companies issued by local and/or national authorities is questionable. An example is given by the reaction of the Portland Bureau Of Transportation (PBOT) to road maintenance through communal initiatives: “It's generally not safe for folks to be out in the street doing an unauthorized pothole repair” and “that poor repairs can leave the person making the repair liable” [78] .

The second ethical challenge is going to occur if the implemented participatory sensing system is badly secured and breached. As a result the complete system is turned into a botnet waiting to be used for large scale DDoS attacks.

This can form a major societal problem due to the fact that the potential scale of the

participatory sensing system in terms of connected sensor nodes and the profit for malicious botmasters using the participatory sensing system for unintended use are connected. According to an article written by R. Anderson et al. [79] it can be noted that there is a correlation between the amount of bots acting in a botnet and the amount of revenue a malicious botmaster is able to obtain upon usage of that botnet for DDoS attacks. Therefore breaching the participatory sensing system can be very profitable for people having malicious intentions.

According to a paper written by Kiat Seng Yeo et al. [80] the number of devices connected to the Internet of Things is rising up to a point where 9 Billion devices are connected by 2018. This means that, next to the participatory sensing system, countless other systems with several objects connected to the internet exist that are vulnerable to possible system breaches. As a result it can be argued that malicious botmasters are going to look for systems with the weakest security measures that are extremely easy to breach since the pool of systems is endless. Therefore the likelihood of the participatory sensing network getting breached depends on the security measures implemented as well as the security measures implemented by other systems.

Other people not involved directly in the participatory sensing system, in case of a DDoS attack being carried out by the participatory sensing system as part of a large botnet, are affected due to the fact that services become unavailable for a certain amount of time as a result of DDoS attacks carried out by a botnet facilitated by the breached participatory sensing system. This also affects the services in both financial damage for services and damage to the brand image of a certain service among users.

The third ethical challenge occurs if the generated road quality data displayed in the user

interface part of the participatory sensing system is not anonymized up until a certain extent and can be downloaded from the user interface. In this case any external party might be able to use the retrieved road quality data in order to perform dataset linkage procedures among several acquired datasets in order to find information regarding persons, companies, institutions etc. For some users this might not be such an issue due to the fact that the value they are receiving from

the system far outweighs the privacy they are giving up. On the other hand for some users data linkage can have severe consequences. 18

If someone would look at the implementation of the participatory sensing system and the ethical challenge given above on a national perspective, e.g. a Dutch perspective, that person could argue that data linkage does not have to be a problem. In this case data linkage might be useful for tracking down terrorists that hire a car from a car company that has implemented part of the participatory sensing system inside the cars that they have available for hire.

On the other hand data linkage as a result of participatory sensing system implementation creates a moral contradiction when the participatory sensing system is implemented on a global scale. While the national perspective given above creates a situation in which terrorists might be captured faster due to data linkage another national perspective with questionable moral

situations might be wrongfully supported. An example of such a questionable moral situation is currently occurring in the Philippines where president Rodrigo Duterte recently launched a ‘Philippine drug war’ [82] . According to Human Rights watch, in relation to the Philippine drug war, “the Philippine police is responsible for extrajudicial executions—the deliberate killing by state security forces or their agents of a person in custody. A clear modus operandi of police operations emerged …with visits that often proved not so much to be warnings but a method of confirming the identity and whereabouts of a target.” [82] . In case of this example the police might be able to use data linkage in order to track down targets more easily.