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In addition to the policies and work done by government (state and federal) and other organisations, a strategy which is often promoted as a solution to food

security is home or community gardens. A wide range of literature shows that home or community gardens can make substantial contributions to food security (Carney et al., 2012; Fieldhouse & Thompson, 2012; Gray et al., 2014; Kortright, 2011; Porter & McIlvaine-Newsad, 2013; Taylor & Lovell, 2014). Home gardening is a practice which connects food, nature and community. It not only brings financial and health benefits to those who participate, but also strengthens relationships among family and community members (Gray et al., 2014). Home gardening is also particularly beneficial to migrants who relocate to new places and take their own cultural practices with them. Although community gardening holds the same attributes as home gardening, home gardening is easier to establish compared to community gardening. Home gardening (growing edible produce such as fruit and vegetables) can be done in a garden, backyard or private property around a residence. Home gardening has effects on the participant’s health, finances and community relationships (Gray et al., 2014). Home gardens are reported to not only change eating habits, with a shift towards higher vegetable consumption, but also to provide a healthy opportunity to engage in a more active lifestyle. Home gardening is a sustainable strategy to improve food security while increasing household

income, if the gardens are well adapted to local agronomic and resource conditions, cultural traditions and preferences (Midmore et al., 1991). Home and community gardens can help to generate enough produce to provide an essential supplement to the household requirements for fruits and vegetables.

Community gardens are spaces where socialising and collective activities allow gardeners to build social networks and provide social support (Gray et al., 2014). Community gardens are part of community-based food systems which provide sustainable production and benefits for communities (Markow et al., 2014).

Community gardening can be a community effort, where time, money, knowledge and skills are shared among local residents, with the aim of enhancing the food supply of the contributing households (Porter & McIlvaine-Newsad, 2013; Tasmanian Food Security Council, 2012). Community residents participate in the garden activity mainly for food security and leisure benefits (socialising and meeting new people), Porter & McIlvaine-Newsad (2013). Carney et al. (2012) indicated that gardening provided many health benefits to both adults and children where there was nearly a four-fold increase in vegetable intake among adults and a three-fold increase among children. Owners manage to grow their own plants not only for their own household use but also share their produce with neighbours and friends. In Eastern Cape (South Africa) home gardens become a place for crop production for home consumption. If there is any extra produce, it is used for food bartering or exchange as gifts and favours among social networks, such as relatives, friends or neighbours. The project Incredible Edible Todmorden in the town of Todmorden (United Kingdom) produced low-carbon food for the local community, as well as re- connecting people with their town, their food and each other (Australian Food Sovereignty Alliance, 2013; Incredible Edible Todmorden, 2013).

Another example is the use of the farm as a strategy to combat food insecurity among African Americans. The Detroit Black Community Food Security Network has used farming as a strategy to improve food security among the Detroit black

community (White, 2011). The farm (community garden) has created communal and social spaces where people can interact and have the opportunity to access healthy food, learn about healthy eating as well as receiving health screenings and services. In addition, the farms are used as places to learn a new food language, such as food labels and food nutrition. This is particularly important for low income African Americans because many experience difficulty in reading and interpreting the information on the nutrition labels printed on packaged foods due to low literacy skill. Moreover, the farms also offer workshops and training sessions, such as cooking and cultural food preparation demonstrations.

In addition, gardens are valued as sites that maintain and enhance cultural and personal identity, which is often deeply rooted in a particular ethnic tradition (Gray

et al., 2014). Garden management and production can represent personal preferences and traditional cultural practices. Community gardens enable

individuals and families from different ethnic groups to interact and form cultural connections. They promote social capital, interactions and social inclusion (Firth et al., 2011) and can lead to the removal of potential barriers among community members where people, particularly recent migrants, can help each other to overcome obstacles. A study by Kortright (2011) in Toronto (Canada) found that household food growing contributed to food security which in turn led to secure health and wellbeing by encouraging a more nutritious diet and facilitating the consumption of culturally appropriate foods. These findings were supported by Marsh (1998) who stated that home gardening contributes to household food security by providing direct access to food that was consumed by the family on a daily basis. Produce from home gardens contributes to the access to fresh food and traditional food ingredients as well as increasing household income. Home

gardening can provide a diverse range of fresh foods that supply adequate nutrients and improve a family’s general health. Participants of gardening often gain

gardening skills, organisational skills and social networks. It is said that gardening not only provides fresh produce, but it is also a good physical activity for the participants and indirectly strengthens relationships among family members and social relationships in the community. This is especially essential for migrants who leave their home countries and lose their social network (Bathum & Baumann, 2007). The Helen Keller International (HKI) is a successful home gardening project in Bangladesh which managed to improve the health condition of families in

Bangladesh by increasing the quantity and quality of nutrients in their daily food consumption. Home gardening by migrants is a useful way to source ingredients for traditional cuisines which are often difficult to obtain from local supermarkets or stores (Longhurst et al., 2009). It can be concluded that home gardening not only helps to improve food security, but also improves the participants’ physical health and strengthens relationships within the community.

In addition, sack gardening is an urban agricultural practice where vegetables such as Kale and Swiss chard are grown in limited spaces by planting crops into both the top and sides of the sack (Gallaher et al., 2013).

Figure 2.4: Relationship between social capital, sack gardening and food security (Gallaher et al., 2013, p. 392)

Figure 2.4 shows the relationship between social capital, sack gardening and food security. Social capital refers to the social networks and relationships that exist within communities and is associated with improved wellbeing including food security; and sack gardening is associated with greater household food security. Social capital and sack gardening are interrelated. Participation in sack gardening produces greater social capital: people have the opportunity to share the produce and build up relationships within the community. A greater sense of trust and cooperation between households and neighbours is built through sack gardening. Home and community gardens create a social network where people share food and so avoid situations of no food or the reliance on coping strategies such as reducing portions or skipping meals.