Architecture has oft en been referred to by the fanciful phrase “concrete music,” suggesting in a poetic way that pleasing ar- chitecture makes more permanent the beauty of music that would otherwise disappear. Because architecture, at least during ancient times, was a collaborative eff ort involving many architects, builders, and craft smen, it came to express the vision and values not just of an individual architect but also of the culture that shaped that vision and those values. Th at ancient architecture is the expression of a culture rather than of a person makes it of particular interest to historians and archaeologists.
Nowhere is this truer than with the architecture of an- cient Asia, particularly China and India, where architecture combined function with great attention to form, beauty, and harmony with the environment. Because portions of large numbers of buildings and other structures from these and other Asian countries have been preserved throughout the centuries, architectural historians have detailed insight into the designs, materials, construction techniques, and func- tions of ancient Asian architecture. What they have found is a great degree of adaptability, as architects were able to use materials and methods that were available to them in their particular regions of the world.
Any tour of the architecture would begin in China, which produced one of the world’s oldest and most accomplished civilizations. Indeed, the infl uence of ancient Chinese archi- tecture was felt throughout Asia in such countries as India, Korea, Japan, and Th ailand.
A
RCHITECTURE OFA
NCIENTC
HINATh e construction of a building in ancient China began with the principles of feng shui, a term that means “wind” (feng) and “water” (shui). Feng shui consists of a set of principles that can be diffi cult for westerners to understand, though in modern life many westerners have been trying to incorporate these principles into the design, construction, and furnishing of their homes and even offi ces.
Feng shui is rooted in the ancient Chinese worldview that sought harmony and balance between the opposing forces of nature and between the physical environment and humans. Th e principles of feng shui were applied to the
selection of a building site, the design of the building, its construction, and the decorations both inside and outside. In contrast to Western architecture, which represented hu- man conquest over the environment and separated the envi- ronment from human spaces, Chinese architecture stressed living in harmony with the heavens and the earth. Not only were individual buildings planned according to the princi- ples of feng shui, but entire cities were laid out according to these principles as well.
Th e process began with a feng shui practitioner, a kind of diviner, who selected the most favorable site for a building or burial site. Th e diviner would apply principles from a number of diff erent systems of thought. One of the most prominent systems included the concept of yin and yang, essentially op- posing masculine and feminine principles. Another was called
wu xing, a complex system of thought that saw nature as a se-
ries of cycles in which the fi ve elements of nature existed in harmony with one another—water in winter, wood in spring, fi re in summer, and metal in the fall, with earth dominating the transitional periods between these seasons. Finally, bagua, another highly complex system of thought, focused on changes in the natural cycle over time. Bagua (pronounced “ba-gwa”) helped the feng shui practitioner identify the nine areas of a home or building that corresponded with prosperity, fame and reputation, relationships, family, health, creativity and chil- dren, skills and knowledge, career, and helpful people.
Th e diviner would then try to achieve the most favorable chi (pronounced “chee”). Once again, the concept is diffi cult for westerners to grasp. In the Western scientifi c view of na- ture, at least until the fi ndings of 20th-century physics, matter and energy were generally thought of as two diff erent things. In Chinese thought they are considered in many respects the same. While the word chi is usually translated as “energy,” it also refers to the notion of matter on the verge of becoming energy and energy on the verge of materializing. Th e concept of chi was used in ancient Chinese medicine to refer to the vital life forces of the body. More generally, it referred to the most basic element of the physical world.
Ancient Chinese architects applied the same principles to construction that ancient Chinese healers applied to the body. Th e goal was to site a building in a way that achieved the most harmonious chi while avoiding evil chi. Th e diviner would focus on fi ve fundamental elements of the physical world: long (dragon), xue (cave), sha (sand), shui (water), and
xiang (orientation, in the sense of which direction something
faces). Th ese elements are self-explanatory except for “drag- on,” which in ancient China was regarded as one of Twelve Symbols of Sovereignty. In this sense, the dragon symbolized the natural world and its ability to transform and adapt. Two dragons together but facing opposite directions were symbol- ic of yin and yang. Th e dragon was also a sign of royalty and thus of power.
To make a structure harmonize with nature, it was be- lieved that the best way to orient it was facing southward to- ward a river or lake with a hill at its back to the north. In one major respect, this orientation had a practical function, for it shielded the structure from cold north winds. In laying out a city, a major goal was to locate the city’s central axis, oft en using mountain peaks to create a line that gave the city har- mony and balance.
Th ree specifi c principles therefore dominated the form of ancient Chinese architecture. Th e fi rst was that a building was to be symmetrical and balanced, in the same way that chi represented symmetry and balance in nature and in the human body. Th is meant that if a building were divided in half along a central axis, the two parts would be mirror im- ages of each other. Th e second principle was that roofs were to be held in place by columns rather than walls. Th is allowed builders to incorporate a greater view of the landscape; the view from inside was not blocked by solid walls that enclosed the space and separated it from nature, and a more natural fl ow of energy from outside to inside could be maintained.
Finally, the roofs themselves were to be curved rather than straight. Th is principle refl ected the ancient Chinese be- lief that curves repelled evil spirits, while fl at roofs allowed evil spirits to enter the building. Th is principle explains why most
Panoramic view of West Lake in Lin'an (modern Hangzhou), China, showing the curved roof feature thought to guard against evil spirits (Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., Gift of Charles Lang Freer)
ancient and traditional Chinese buildings have something of a curved, swooped appearance, rather than the appearance of boxes, triangles, and other geometric shapes characteristic of Western architecture. One of the chief innovations of ancient Chinese architecture was development of the corbel bracket. A corbel is any kind of projecting support that extends out- ward from a building’s roofl ine. Th e corbel can be decorated, and it was the use of corbels on ancient Chinese buildings that gave the roofs their distinctive style.
Th e most dominant form of architecture that survives from ancient China is imperial architecture, referring to structures associated with ruling dynasties. Rulers, of course, had access to immense funds to build huge mausoleums (tombs) and palaces, and they could command the eff orts of literally thousands of architects and builders as well as slaves and prisoners of war to perform the actual labor. Although many ancient buildings in China were constructed of stone and even of metals, most were constructed with wood, which was plentiful. But because wood is a nondurable material, most of the ancient structures archaeologists have studied exist only in ruins. In many cases, archaeologists have only foundations to study.
Tombs and mausoleums were prominent structures in ancient China. For many centuries Chinese imperial rulers constructed elaborate tombs and mausoleums for themselves, and these structures are scattered about China since diff erent dynasties ruled from diff erent capital cities. Employing the principles of feng shui, they typically backed these structures up against hills and mountains, with the entrance looking out over a plain. Usually, a prominent feature was a Shendao, meaning “the Sacred Way.” Th is was a broad, long entrance leading to the tomb. Guarding the tomb would typically be rows of statues of humans and animals. Along with the tomb would be other elaborate structures designed to enhance the dignity and power of the deceased.
Before arriving at his tomb, however, an ancient Chinese ruler would occupy a royal palace. As noted, these and other structures in ancient China were oft en built with wood, so they employed massive beams and posts that transferred the weight of the structure to the ground. Th e earliest such struc- tures were painted primarily to protect the wood from the elements, but over time painting became much more elabo- rate, colorful, and decorative. One of the most famous palace complexes in China, built for the emperor Qin Shi Huang more than 2,000 years ago during the Qin Dynasty (221–207 b.c.e.), is called the Epanggong Palace. (Gong was the Chinese word for palace, though depending on the context it could also mean simply “home.”) Th e complex’s Front Palace was immense, capable of holding many thousands of people and covering an area of about 861,000 square feet. (By compari- son, a football fi eld, including the end zones, covers 57,600 square feet.) Another prominent set of palaces included those of the Western Han Dynasty (202 b.c.e.–9 c.e.), collectively referred to as Weiyanggong, which had some 40 palaces with- in an area measuring just 6.8 miles across.
Much of the imperial architecture of ancient China in- corporated the number 9, which had special meaning. Ac- cording to the principles of yin and yang, yin represented even numbers, while yang represented odd numbers. Odd numbers were thought of as masculine, while even numbers were considered feminine. To display their power (and mas- culinity), ancient Chinese emperors insisted on designs that incorporated 9, the largest odd number less than 10, and its multiples. Th us, for example, ancient temples and palaces were oft en built with nine sections, and gates were oft en built with various materials, including lumbar and stone, arranged in nine columns and nine rows. Another common feature on ancient Chinese palaces was the depiction of dragons and phoenixes. Th ese fi gures were totems, or personal emblems, and they represented the emperor and his wife or consort. Columns, screens, walls, and other elements were painted or carved with representations of dragons and phoenixes.
Of nearly equal importance in ancient China were tem- ples and other structures with religious signifi cance, such as pagodas. It is estimated that during the Northern Wei Dynas- ty (386–535 c.e.), some 30,000 temples were built throughout China under orders from the emperor. Many of these temples were built with as much splendor as imperial palaces, and many were built in a shape that resembled that of a mush- room, suggesting the concept of rapid growth.
Like palaces, temples were extremely symmetrical, with the building balanced on a central axis and facing south. On the fl anks of the temple proper were annexes and other build- ings, again constructed with great symmetry and balance. Temples typically included an elaborate gate, a “heavenly king hall,” and a library, as well as more practical elements such as dormitories, kitchens, dining halls, and rooms for receiving visitors. Also prominent in China are some 3,000 existing pagodas, which were built with various materials, including wood, stone, brick, iron, and bronze. Some of these pagodas are as high as 130 feet. Most are multistoried, and they were built as religious shrines, memorials, or temples. In many cases a temple was constructed below the pagoda.
One of the most famous Chinese architectural achieve- ments is the Great Wall of China, the world’s longest artifi cial structure at nearly 4,000 miles. However, the Great Wall that exists today is only one of fi ve diff erent walls built by the Chi- nese. Th e fi rst, made primarily of rammed earth, was built during the Qin Dynasty in 208 b.c.e. Very little of this fi rst wall remains intact, though archaeologists have discovered remains of it along with the remains of watchtowers con- structed along its length. Th e wall was not built as a single project; rather, construction was a matter of joining together a number of regional walls primarily to mark China’s north- ern boundary at the time. Most of the laborers who built the wall were slaves, prisoners of war, and political prisoners, and it is estimated that up to a million of them died during the wall’s construction, giving the wall the nickname “the long graveyard.” A second wall, built during the Han Dy- nasty (202 b.c.e.–220 c.e.) during the fi rst century b.c.e., was
constructed in a similar way. It, too, has largely disappeared. Th e Great Wall that remains a tourist attraction in China was built under the Ming Dynasty over a 300-year period begin- ning in the 14th century.
A
RCHITECTURE OFI
NDIAHistorians and archaeologists use the phrase Indian architec-
ture to refer to the architecture not just of the nation of India
but of the entire Asian subcontinent as well, including the modern-day nations of Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. In ancient times, and even in modern life, these nations shared a culture and religion that gave rise to a common architecture.
Th e history of Indian architecture begins in the Indus Valley (roughly corresponding to the modern Indian state of Punjab) when, some 5,000 years ago, people migrated into the area and found a fertile, hospitable land. Archaeologists have discovered the remains of cities that were laid out with a degree of planning that would put to shame many modern cities, with defensive walls and streets arranged in a regular octagonal pattern, making it easier for carts laden with food and other materials to make turns. Th e remains of numerous houses have been found. Th ese houses were built around a central courtyard that aff orded privacy while also allowing light to enter the rooms constructed around it. Th e courtyard also provided a cool place for the family to gather during hot spells, yet it held warmth during colder weather. Long before the ancient Romans developed plumbing systems, the cities of the Indus Valley had sewage and drainage systems.
Roughly 3,500 years ago the cities of the Indus Valley, most prominently Mohenjo Daro, fell to nomadic Aryan invaders from the northwest. Th ese invaders drove out the indigenous people, but rather than occupying their cities, the invaders pre- ferred to live in forest hamlets. Although little of their architec- ture survives intact, archaeologists have studied ruins and have determined that the simple architecture of the Aryans infl u- enced Indian architecture for many generations. Much of what is known about the architecture of this age, called the Vedic Age (ca. 1500–ca. 600 b.c.e.), is preserved in the ancient texts, the Vedas, that later formed the basis of Hinduism. It is known that the Aryans built homes with the abundant materials that lay at hand, including lumber and bamboo thatch. Th eir homes were circular and domelike, though later the homes expanded into a more rectangular shape. In time Aryan villages devel- oped into small cities divided into quadrants and intersected by two main streets at right angles to each other. One quad- rant was for the city’s citadel, which guarded it from outsiders. A second was residential, a third was for merchants, and the fourth was for tradesmen.
A third phase of Indian architecture is associated with the rise of Buddhism. Th e connections between Buddhism and architecture, though, provide an interesting case study in the links between religion and other elements of a culture. During the Vedic period and up to about 500 b.c.e. the teach- ings of the Vedas had an impact on virtually every aspect of people’s lives. Th e rigid caste system separating the social
classes of India emerged, and religion consisted primarily of pure ritual. At about this time two major religious reform- ers rose. One was the Buddha, or Siddhartha Gautama, who was born in 563 b.c.e. and founded the Buddhist religion. Th e other was Mahavira, the date of whose birth is uncertain but whose life probably overlapped that of the Buddha. Mahavira was the founder of Jainism, another major Indian religion and one that has many features in common with Buddhism. In both instances, the new emphasis was on the nature of the soul rather than on ritual observances.
Both of these key religious fi gures attempted to reform Vedic culture by lessening some of the emphasis on ritual. Buddhism turned out to be the religion that had the wider appeal, and it won the support not only of the region’s mer- cantile classes but also of the king, Asoka the Great (r. ca. 273–232 b.c.e.), who declared Buddhism the state religion. Under Asoka, funds were provided to build monasteries throughout the region. Further, because the Buddha himself was the closest thing to a god among Buddhists, his relics became scattered throughout the land. Th e key point is that these religious developments gave rise to much of the archi- tecture that developed in the Buddha’s wake.
Accordingly, throughout India a large number of shrines were built in honor of the Buddha, many of them little more than piles of rocks purporting to contain a relic of the Buddha. In time, however, the people began to believe that these shrines needed to be improved, which gave rise to more elaborate stu- pas, or spherical confi gurations of stone, that refl ected the growing infl uence of Buddhism. Th ese stupas could be found throughout the country, and people visited them as shrines.
By about the second century b.c.e., though, the infl uence of Buddhism began to wane. India’s rulers were returning to the teachings of the Vedas, and they found the Vedic caste system more congenial to their notions of power. Aft er the reign of Asoka the Great and the decline of two major Indian ruling dynasties (the Kushans in the north and the Andhras in the south), Indian art and architecture underwent a severe decline. Buddhism, however, by no means disappeared. Mer-