Teoría de la Participación Paradigmas Participativos

strong economic dependence on tourism, such as seaside resorts, have since the eighteenth century always promoted their towns to visitors. Brown has described how local authorities have been entrepreneurs both in the marketing of their own products and in the co-ordination of tourism services produced by others (Brown, 1988) . However, now it is the industrial cities - perhaps the least likely - that are marketing themselves for tourism because of the

economic, social and environmental benefits that tourism can provide. Tourism is being used as a means of urban regeneration and, despite being once dismissed as the

'candy floss economy', is increasingly being recognised as a valuable tool for economic development (Beioley, 1981) . Many British industrial cities are going through a profound structural adjustment from the manufacturing and goods

handling economy to the service economy, particularly the information providing economy. Most of these cities are found in the older manufacturing regions where the old economy has declined most drastically often as a result of the rise of new competing industrial countries. These

cities are looking to the service industries (including tourism) to provide an important part of the economic base for the future (Hall, 1987).

In Britain tourists have traditionally visited seaside resorts, historic towns and the countryside, but urban tourism is now a rapidly expanding phenomenon. Vandermey has said that people visit cities because:

"Cities can offer a range of travel and tourism related services and attractions diverse in nature, yet highly concentrated in location. Cities provide visitors a wide spectrum of cultural amenities, such as churches,

museums, galleries, folklore, concerts, amusement and entertainment facilities and other commercial services.. Urban centres provide an excellent opportunity for the visitors whose primary goal is contact with other people and institutions." (Vandermey, 1984, pl23).

In addition the mobility, affluence and increased leisure time of the late-twentieth century has made urban tourism appeal to a wide range of tourism markets (Karski, 1990), as many tourists now seek an individual rather than a mass tourism experience and cities can provide this. They want to discover something different and learn something about

the character of an urban place, its history, traditions, culture and people (Bramwell, 1990). Consequently, less obvious tourist destinations such as industrial cities will benefit from interest in urban tourism.

The revitalisation of American cities such as Boston, Baltimore and Lowell by tourist-related developments have been held up as role models for regeneration in Britain, as they significantly improved facilities, economic activity,

image and employment in these cities (Beioley, 1981;

Falk, 1986). British cities adopted similar strategies to their American counterparts during and following the

recession of 1980-1982 because they had very high

unemployment and were keen to seek any new industry to help overcome this problem. Local authorities sought to expand or develop their tourist industries and market themselves for tourism as one policy among several to ease the

restructuring of their local economies and to generate income and employment (Law, 1991).

The economic impact of tourism on a city results from

tourist expenditure which creates employment and generates local income. Tourism developments are usually fairly

labour intensive and generate firstly, many unskilled or semi-skilled jobs in the construction of visitor-related facilities such as hotels, restaurants, attractions and shops and, secondly, in the operation of these facilities.- The presence of tourist attractions can stimulate the

establishment of offices and other industries leading to more employment (Bodlender, 1982).

Tourism's contribution to the income of an area is greater than immediately apparent due to the phenomenon of the tourism income multiplier, which is a measure of how much extra income is generated in the local economy as a result of the initial spending. Tourists spend money on goods and services and accommodation which directly creates jobs and local income in the businesses supplying them. These

businesses will then use some of this income to buy goods and services from other firms causing further job and

income creation - indirect effects. In addition, there are induced effects caused by the spending of personal income by households that receive income from the direct and indirect effects causing further job and income creation

(WTO/Horwath and Horwath, 1981).

Other benefits of tourism include social benefits for the local community. The presence of tourists will encourage the provision of facilities such as shops, markets, public transport, leisure and recreation facilities, etc. which will then be available for use by local residents. Use by tourists will increase revenue and may encourage a high level of provision of facilities. Tourism also supports the organisation of cultural events such as exhibitions,

festivals and theatres, etc. which can bring life and visitors to a city (ETB, 1981).

Finally, tourism can provide physical improvements to the environment and infrastructure of a city by providing new and economic uses for old and redundant buildings and can be a strong force for conservation. Inner city locations

often contain areas with interesting historical buildings and features such as canals, warehouses and disused docks, which can be developed as attractions and this is an aspect of our history that is of increasing interest to people. It is also often a much better use of resources to reuse old buildings than to demolish them and build anew. When an area is restored and developed the external environment around is improved with the establishment of public spaces such as parks, squares and tree-lined pedestrianised

streets and so makes the area a much more interesting and attractive area to live in and visit (ETB, 1981).

Law has provided a useful summary of the strategy for using tourism for urban regeneration (see fig. 3.2) and explains the strategy:

"The basis of the strategy is that visitors will be drawn into the area, generating income, which directly or

indirectly will create jobs. Hopefully profits from the industry will encourage further investment leading to a virtuous circle of growth. Moreover as tourism develops new environments will be created which will benefit local residents and improve the image of the city. The expansion of tourist facilities may also be useful for local residents and improve the image of the city. Visitors to the changing city will have their image transformed and this will be relayed to others on their return home. The marketing of the city for tourism will also benefit other sectors of the economy, as in the attraction of industries. Through tourism marketing the image of the place will be improved. This could result in the inflow of firms and people. Again as visitor flow increases residents may gain civic pride, and hopefully this might produce a greater concern for the

environment." (Law, 1991, p50).

However, as Law has described, one of the most important benefits of tourism is that marketing a city as a tourist destination can be used to improve the image of a city, and it is this aspect of tourism that forms the focus of this

Fig. 3.2 THE STRATEGY OF TOURISM AND URBAN REGENERATION (Law, 1991, p51) Civic pride Population growth Visitors Income Marketing Jobs New image Prospect of visitors

Public sector pump priming

Other economic activities expand

Physical, economic and social regeneration Further

investment ■Attractions, -j

Environmental .Improvements]

Investment 'Attractions, 'Environmental -improvements -

study. Many industrial cities had very negative images in the perceptions of people who saw them as being dirty, industrial places. Although this may have been true in the past, with the decline of their manufacturing industries many of these industrial cities have cleaned up their city centres, cleared derelict areas, adapted old industrial buildings for new uses and built new developments, with the result that they are now more pleasant places to visit. Deep-rooted images, prejudices and stereotypes about places are often very resistant to change, but many industrial cities are striving vigorously to change their negative images, often in part by marketing themselves for tourism. The theory is that tourism can make a very positive

contribution to a person's image of a place by helping to put a city on the map, identifying it in people's

consciousness, highlighting positive attributes and encouraging them to visit. If visitors have a good

experience of the city it is likely to leave a positive image in their minds which they will communicate to their friends and acquaintances and so its reputation will

spread. Industrial cities are creating and marketing good positive images of themselves in order to attract visitors. A city may need to have a good image and confidence in

itself as an entity before new enterprise will consider locating there (ETB, 1981). For example, a study into the impact of tourism projects in British inner cities found that the projects were having a positive effect on the

image of the areas in which they were located and that several projects had contributed to changing developer's

attitudes to investment in that particular city (Department of the Environment, 199 0).