TEORÍA DEL INTERÉS SUPERIOR

By Ulrich Schmutz and Francis Rayns

Participatory action research (PAR)

This is an approach to conduct research in association with communities and stakeholders involving participation and practical action. PAR seeks to understand the world by trying to change it, collaboratively and following reflection. It has been used in many different parts of the world and works equally well with farmers and gardeners as stakeholders. PAR addresses the research questions important for those who participate as co- researchers. The participants are included in identifying the research question, the research design, practical field research, and in the analysis and interpretation of the results. PAR emerged in the 1950s, especially in rural and community development in the Global South. An online description of participatory research methods is given by Bergold and Thomas (2012), and a leading handbook of Action Research is published by Reason and Bradbury (2006).

The term ‘citizen science’ is a recently coined term and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 2014. Citizen science can be defined as scientific work undertaken by members of the public, often in collaboration with, or under the direction of, scientific institutions. As such it can be seen as a sub-type of PAR. However, citizen science is only participative and action based when citizens are included into the research process at every stage. If citizens are only used to collect data from a large sample under instruction from an institution this cannot be called PAR.

A useful background document on citizen science is the EU Commission’s green paper (Socientze, 2013) and white paper (Socientze, 2014). These publications aim to foster the interaction between the citizen science stakeholders and the EU policy institutions, reinforcing the culture of consultation and dialogue in the EU. This white paper defines citizen science, as “broad networks of people collaborating where participants provide experimental data and facilities for researchers, raise new questions and co-create a new scientific culture”. This new co-created scientific culture can be similar to the one to which PAR aspires. A practical guide to citizen science, specifically to study biodiversity and the environment, can be downloaded from the UK Environmental Observation Framework (Tweddle et al. 2012).

Example of PAR and citizen science

There are many good PAR examples, however one of the most long-running is that of the UK charity Henry Doubleday Research Association (HDRA, current working name Garden Organic), which has conducted citizen science experiments for more than 50 years. They are known as “Members’ Experiments” and the idea was (and still is) that citizens interested in organic horticulture and agriculture form a membership organisation which then co-develops research into organic horticulture “among farmers, gardeners and schools” (HDRA, 1960; Dehnen-Schmutz et al. 2014). Each year three to ten experiments have been organised with between 50 and 400 participants per experiment. They are provided with background information, methodology/instructions, recording forms, seeds and any specialist materials required. Recurring topics have included soil fertility (especially the use of comfrey), pest and disease control, novel crops and varieties, and biodiversity surveys.

Results are shared with all the charities’ members and the wider public (i.e. not only those taking part in the research). Detailed results are published in a member magazine and many of the now well-known techniques of organic horticulture were supported by results from these experiments. Some findings have also made their way into the peer-reviewed academic literature but most of them are not open-access and hence remain rather inaccessible.

A recent example of a Member’s Experiment was the use of biochar as a soil amendment. For this more than 300 participants were asked to establish a 1m2 _{control plot and an equivalent biochar plot (2 kg perm}2_{). The soil pH}

and soil structure were assessed by the participants. Participants were given seeds and asked to use the same date, time and sowing method for control and treatment plots. Crop management, watering, and weeding also had to be similar. Measurements were made on crop yield by separating above ground fresh biomass from below ground and weighing separately. Photographs of the produce were taken for a visual comparison and they also recorded harvest time and exact location. An experiment webpage was maintained with guidance, feedback and discussion boards.

What to consider when planning PAR and citizen science? Before you start:

• Include participants in planning the research and framing the research questions as much as possible. • Create a non-hierarchical atmosphere where all knowledge (e.g. practical experience, artistic knowledge,

scientific expertise) is equally valid.

• Used simple clear words rather than scientific jargon.

• Build a long-standing research network – not short-term, early exit research. During the experiment:

• In the research design use simple but effective questions, don’t overload participants with data recording. • Provide good guidance on the research background and material and methods used.

• Provide seeds and any other materials needed for the research, together with clear instructions. • Aim for a large as possible participation as this will make the results more robust.

• Interact with participants regularly (e.g. through a website) not just when the project is finished. • Include other social and environmental aspects like economics, biodiversity, health and wellbeing.

• Ask for feedback, including social and environmental aspects, even if this more difficult to analyse and capture and incorporate the feed-back into next year’s research design.

After the experiment:

• Use good understandable graphics, pictures and visual aids to communicate results with the citizen science community.

• Use statistical analysis wherever appropriate.

• Publish in applied journals and user magazines read by your audience. Use internet, smart technology and social media as appropriate.

• Also publish in peer-reviewed journals, however only if these have open-access to citizen scientists. • Build a long-standing research network, use lessons learned for next year’s experiments.

References and further information Bergold, J. and S. Thomas (2012).

Participatory Research Methods: A Methodological Approach in Motion. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 13 (1). Art. 30, www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/1801/3334

Dehnen-Schmutz, K., G. Foster, S. Persello and F. Rayns (2014):

Garden Organic Members' Experiments: A 50 year history of citizen science in the garden. Wildlife Gardening Conference: Citizen Science and Biological Recording in the Garden. Natural History Museum, London, Nov- 2014, http://bit.ly/1GdVum6

Henry Doubleday Research Association – HDRA (1960)

Memorandum: About the association. www.gardenorganic.org.uk Reason, P. and H. Bradbury Editors (2006)

Handbook of action research. Sage Publications, London, UK, ISBN 978-1-4129-2030-8. Socientize / EU Commission (2013)

Green paper on citizen science. Citizen science for Europe. Towards a better society of empowered citizens and enhanced research. Socientize project. www.socientize.eu

Socientize / EU Commission (2014)

White paper on citizen science for Europe. Socientize project. www.socientize.eu Tweddle, J., L. Robinson, M. Pocock, and H. Roy (2012).

Guide to citizen science: developing, implementing and evaluating citizen science to study biodiversity and the environment in the UK. Natural History Museum and NERC Centre for Ecology & Hydrology for UK-EOF. www.ukeof.org.uk/resources/citizen-science-resources