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important as transmitters of traditional music. According to Song Bang-song, kisaeng’s performances on radio did contribute to the increasing popularity of Korean traditional

music, although kagok and instrumental musical genres were insignificant in radio programs in 1920.30 It is appropriate, here, to examine important individual kisaeng and their contributions to the preservation of kagok.

30 Song Bang-song. 2000a. “Kyŏnggi Pangsongguke Ch’ulyŏnhan Yŏgidŭlŭi Kongyŏn Hwaltong” [Kisaeng’s performance record of the Kyŏngsŏng Radio Broadcasting station]. Sŏng Kyŏng-nin Sŏnsaeng Kusun Kinyŏm

i) Performances at Kyŏngsŏng Radio Broadcasting

Kisaeng’s performances were often aired through radios during the Japanese colonization and Kyŏngsŏng Radio Broadcasting regularly offered kisaeng’s singing including kagok and other classical and folk songs.

Chosŏn Hansŏng Hannam Taedong Kyŏnggi Taejŏng Total

Kagok 3 1 4 Kasa 19 28 2 49 Kayagŭm solo 1 1 Kayagŭm duo 10 5 3 4 1 23 Kŏngonga kagok 1 1 Kyŏngsŏng chapka 4 3 7 Kyesŏng ipch’ang 2 2 Kosiyŏn’gŏn 13 13 1 4 31 Namdo Kayo 1 1 Kogŭm yongŏn 1 1 Namdo solo 27 10 7 15 1 60 Namdo sori 1 1 2 Namdo tan’ga 3 4 1 8 Namdo chapka 2 2 Tanso solo 1 1 Sŏdo sori 1 1 Sedo tan’ga 33 39 2 22 2 1 99 Sŏdo chapka 1 1 Ipch’ang 2 1 3 Chosŏn’ga 2 2 Chosŏn kagok 2 2 Chosŏn kasa 2 2 5 3 12 Chosŏn sori 1 2 1 4 Chosŏn chapka 1 1 Chunggŏ sijo 1 1 P’yŏngsijo 1 1 Haejusanyŏmbul 1 1 Total 128 109 27 48 7 1 320

[Table 2-1: The repertoire of six Kwŏnbŏn in the radio programs in 1920]31

The repertoire of kisaeng performers on the radio varied: twenty-seven genres from vocal music to instrumental music were aired. The following [Table 2-1] will show

the frequency of the music performances of the six renowned Kwŏnbŏn in the radio programs in 1920. Kagok was performed four times only in three-hundred and twenty performances. This fact reveals that the popularity of kagok in the 1920s was extremely low. On the other hand, folk vocal music such as sŏdo chapka (30.9 %), namdo chapka (18.75 %) were more popular with the public. However, three classical music genres

(kagok, kasa and sijo) number only fifty-one out of three- hundred and twenty performances (15.9 %).

The other interesting point of the record is that instrumental music was rarely

performed by kisaeng. Song Bang-song pointed out the fact that learning instrumental music required more time to learn than vocal music. Therefore, a short period of kisaeng training during the Japanese colonization made the vocal genres, excluding kagok, popular and the instrumental genres weak.

The following table shows Kwŏnbŏn (kisaeng schools) and the number of kisaeng who appeared on radio programs in 1920.32

Name of Kwŏnbŏn No. of performers Chosŏn Kwŏnbŏn (Taejŏng Kwŏnbŏn) 35 Hansŏng Kwŏnbŏn 29 Hannam Kwŏnbŏn 18 Taedong Kwŏnbŏn 19 Kyŏnggi Kwŏnbŏn 3 Taejŏng Kwŏnbŏn 1

[Table 2-2: The number of performers in the radio programs in each Kwŏnbŏn in 1920]33

The above six kwŏnbŏn were located in Hansŏng (Seoul), because over eighty percent of kisaeng (470 out of 588 kisaeng) belonged to the Kwŏnbŏn in Seoul [Table 2- 1]. After the Chosŏn dynasty, most kisaeng did not come back to their hometown and stayed in Seoul, which meant they were already well trained kisaeng. As can be seen in table 5, Chosŏn Kwŏnbŏn and Hansŏng Kwŏnbŏn performed more actively than other ones. In the two Kwŏnbŏn Ha Kyu-il made an effort to teach kagok to the kisaeng from 1914 to the 1930s. Weakening situation of kagok apparently appeared in the gramophone recording industry during the Japanese colonization. According to the

Korean Traditional Music Disc Museum, six-hundred and eighty-five gramophone

recordings have been preserved today. However, of these only ten are female kagok sung by Yi Nan-hyang and Sŏ Sanhoju. Therefore, research on kisaeng should be encouraged urgently while some old kisaeng are still alive.

ii) Ha Kyu-il’s devotion to kisaeng’s survival and his students

After the Chosŏn dynasty was invaded by Japan in 1910, kisaeng groups, including kagok kisaeng, were scattered. However, they could not return to their families as they would bring with them the disgrace of being kisaeng. The pioneer of today’s kagok, Ha Kyu-il looked after them by establishing the Kisaeng Union the Mubugi Chohap (The Kisaeng’s Union for the Husbandless) in 1911. This union was set up to protect kisaeng from being sold by rich men from Yubugi Chohap (The Concubine Kisaeng’s Union). Ha Kyu-il also set up other kisaeng unions and one school (Chŏngak Chŏnsŏpso: 1912 and Taejŏng Kwŏnbŏn: 1914).34 _{The kisaeng school,}

Kwŏnbŏn, usually offered kagok, sijo, dance, kŏmun’go, kayagŭm and yanggŭm as subjects.

Ha Kyu-il himself offered to teach kagok to kisaeng at Kwŏnbŏn. As time went by, the school extended its repertoire not only to classical music but also to folk genres such

as p’ansori, Japanese music, folk songs and sanjo.35 He also taught them kagok and Korean traditional dance ‘ch’unaengjŏn ’ which had originally been performed in front of the King (Sunjong) of the Chosŏn dynasty. Ch’unaengjŏn is not an active dance and

34 Hwang Byung-ki. “Ha Kyu-il Kagokŭi Yŏksajŏk Ŭiŭi” [The Historical Meaning of Ha Kyu-il’s Kagok]. The

Proceedings of the Symposium of the Celebration of Kŭmha Ha Kyu-il as the honorable person of the month. Seoul: Ehwa Womans University, 2000.

has extremely slow, grave movements which are intended to lead to a peaceful and

tranquil mood.36 The following photo on the cover of a Japanese journal in 1929, shows

kisaeng wearing ch’unaengjŏn costumes.

[Plate 2-2: Little kisaeng with kŏmun’go]37

[Plate 2-3: Kisaeng wearing Ch’unaengjŏn costume in 1929]38

Hwang Byung-ki acknowledged the great contribution that Ha Kyu-il made to

kagok, especially through the development of his teaching method and transcription. After he resigned from the highly regarded position of ‘mayor’ he concentrated on

36 Kim Mae-ja. Han’gukŭi Ch’um (Korean Traditional Dance). Seoul: Taewonsa.1990: 42. 37 Kawamura, Minato. 2002: 201.

teaching kagok, in the Yiwangjik Aakpu and kisaeng schools, for ten years from 1926.39

The Yiwangjik Aakpu (the Institution for Korean Traditional Classical Music) was one of the official music institutions for male musicians under Japanese Colonization.40

From 1926 to his death in 1936, Ha Kyu-il continued to teach kagok at the Yiwangjik Aakpu. In spite of his tremendous contribution to Korean traditional music, information about him and especially on his teaching methods is very limited and consequently little

research has been done on him.41

Ha Kyu-il was also the first person to release a kagok recording by the Japanese gramophone recording company, Ilbon Iltong Ch’ukŭmgi Chusikhoesa, in 1925. Unfortunately, any copies have yet to be found and its existence is known only from a

newspaper article.42 In total, Ha Kyu-il released twenty-three recordings but less than

half of them have been found.43 There was one duet kagok recording,‘Hwap’yŏn’, in about 1935, recorded by Columbia (Columbia 4065). It was sung by him and his female

student Kim Su-jŏng (1914-1970) in the Taejŏng Kwŏnbŏn.

39 Hwang Byung-ki. 2000: 3-7.

40 Compact Disc, Yiwangjik Aakpu ŭmak SYNCD-006, was released in 1993 (Rec.1928-1948).

41 Han Myŏng-hŭi. “Ha Kyu-ilŭi Insaenggwa Yesulsegye” [The life and musical works of Ha Kyu-il]. The

Proceedings of the Symposium of The Celebration of Kŭmha Ha Kyu-il. Seoul: Ehwa Womans University, 2000. 3. 42 The Mail Sinbo [The Daily Mail]. 14. September. 1925.

43 Yi Po-hyŏng. “Ha Kyu-ilŭi Kagok Ŭmbane Kwanhan Yŏn’gu” [The Life and Works of Ha Kyu-il]. The proceedings of the Symposium of The Celebration of Kŭmha Ha Kyu-il. Seoul:Ehwa Womans University, 2000. 55.

The most influential kagok singers today, from Ha Kyu-il on, are all from the Yiwangjik Aakpu or the unions: they are Yi Chu-hwan (male), Yi Pyŏng-sŏng (male), Kim Chin-hyang (female), Yi Nan-hyang (female), Chu San-wŏl (female), Kim Su-jŏng (female), and Sŏ Sanhoju (female).

iii) Ha Kyu-il’s female students

Kim Chin-hyang (1910-1997): Kim Chin-hyang was adopted by Ha Kyu-il at the age of seven, and then lived with him for three years before going to the kisaeng union. She was good at kagok singing, but concealed her musical talent once the liberation from the Japanese colonization occurred. However, she was found again when she met,

by chance, her colleague (a Korean traditional music performer) on a Seoul street in

1987. Kim Chŏng-ja, professor of the Seoul National University, a kayagŭm performer, searched for her after hearing about this meeting. Eventually, Kim Chŏng-ja met Kim Chin-hyang and persuaded Kim Chin-hyang to teach kagok to her and Ch’oe Su-ok. Kim Chŏng-ja wanted to learn kagok as a kagok accompanist.44 She researched Kim Chin-hyang’s kagok experiences and her education under Ha Kyu-il and recounted them in detail in the book Sŏn’ga Ha Kyu-il Sŏnsaeng Yakchŏn.45

One year before her death,

44 Kim Chŏng-ja. personal interview. Seoul. 21 August. 2001. 45 Kim Chin-hyang. Ed. 1993.

Kim Chin-hyang appeared in the TV documentary and said “We should remember that

kagok is obviously the fundamental form of Korean traditional music.”

Chu San-wŏl (1894-1982): Chu San-wŏl was born in P’yŏngyang and brought up in a middle class family. She learnt kagok, kasa and sijo from Ha Kyu-il in the Chosŏn Kwŏnbŏn. She was good at not only kagok but also calligraphy and kayagŭm. After she married a patriot, Son Pyŏng-hŭi in 1911, she spent her life supporting him until his death. He was more than twenty years older than her and she had no children. After his

death, she often sang kagok, kasa and sijo when she felt lonely, but she almost ceased her official kagok performances.46

Yi Nan-hyang (1900-1979): When Yi Nan-hyang was only thirteen years old she was chosen as the representative of a little kisaeng group (tonggi) in P’yŏngyang. Hence, she was sent to perform for a party for the king at the palace (chinyŏn) in Seoul. From there, she entered the Chosŏn Kwŏnbŏn in 1914 and learnt kagok, kasa, sijo and dance, mainly from Ha Kyu-il. Her specialty was channorae (variations of the authentic kagok - Nong, Rak, P’yŏn and P’yŏngnong) and kasa. Her delicate sikimsae technique was especially well known. After her marriage to a press reporter, Mr. Nam, as his second

wife she continued to learn kagok from Ha Kyu-il at the Chosŏn Kwŏnbŏn. Eventually

she released a kagok record in 1935, which was the first recording of female kagok. In total, she released six gramophone recordings during her life.47

i) Two kagok recordings [Columbia 40369-A (21257) Kyerak] [Columbia 40369-B (21258) P’yŏn]

ii) Two kasa recordings [Columbia 40155-A (21259) Sangsa pyŏlgok] [Columbia 40155-B (21260) Paekkusa] iii) One folk song (Tanga) [Taihei (8210-ACK697) Nokŭmbangcho]

iv) Kayagŭm performance [Taihei(8210-BCK696) Kayagŭm – pyŏngch’ang]

The above recordings were released after her marriage and it was very unusual for

a married kisaeng to learn kagok continuously. Without her husband’s support she could not have kept up her musical life. She was also famous for her filial piety towards her

blind mother-in-law and after three years of enthusiastic care, her mother-in-law

regained her eyesight.48

Sŏ Sanhoju (1910-?): Sŏ Sanhoju was born in Seoul. She was an adopted daughter of Ha Kyu–il and learnt kagok and dance from him. She left four gramophone recordings made during the Japanese colonization: i) Polydor 19010-A Kyerak, ii)

47 Korean Traditional Music Disc Museum. http//www.hearkorea.com. 19 November. 2005. 48 Kim Chin-hyang. Ed. 1993: 143-145.

Polydor 19010-B Hwap’yŏn iii) Polydor 19010-A Kasa Ch’unmyŏngok iv) Polydor 19010-B.49

There are only a few gramophone recordings left from this era, because the cost of

recordings was very expensive. Any resources of these kisaeng’s lives, including musical performances and recordings, are extremely limited. Luckily, Kim Chin-hyang

wrote down brief accounts of their lives in Sŏn’ga Ha Ku-il Sŏnsaeng Yakchŏn based on her memories of them as colleagues.