The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO has long been aware of the detrimental effects that harmful algal blooms (HAB) can have on national economies and aims to support research to mitigate these effects on fisheries, aquaculture, human health, recreation areas and ecosystems (Bernal, 2004). To this end, the IOC maintains a Science and Communication Centre on Harmful Algae, which serves as an important international channel
of communication for information on many aspects of HAB. The Centre publishes a regular international newsletter,Harmful Algae News, a best-selling manual on HAB (Hallegraeff et al., 2004) and other literature and maintains various information databases, including an international directory of experts. Further information can be obtained from the IOC website http://www.ioc.unesco.org/hab/.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr Donald Anderson and Ms Judy Kleindinst of the Woods Hole Oceano-graphic Institution, Massachusetts, USA, for supplying the maps in Figs. 4.1a–4.1f and both Ir Hans van Egmond of the National Institute of Public Health, Bilthoven, the Netherlands and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization for permission to reproduce Figs.
4.2a–4.2j. Thanks are also due to Dr Philipp Hess of the Marine Institute, Oranmore, Eire, for helpful comments.
References
Aasen, J., MacKinnon, S.L., LeBlanc, P., Walter, J.A., Hovgaard, P., Aune, T. and Quilliam, M.A. (2005a) Detection and identification of spirolides in Norwegian shellfish and plankton. Chemical Research in Toxicology, 18(3), 509–515.
Aasen, J., Samdal, I.A., Miles, C.O., Dahl, E., Briggs, L.R. and Aune, T. (2005b) Yessotoxins in Norwe-gian blue mussels (Mytilus edulis): Uptake from Protoceratium reticulatum, metabolism and depuration.
Toxicon, 45(3), 265–272.
Aasen, J.A., Hardstaff, W., Aune, T. and Quilliam, M.A. (2006) Discovery of fatty acid ester metabolites of spirolide toxins in mussels from Norway using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry.Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry, 20(10), 1531–1537.
Alfonso, A., Rom´an, Y., Vieytes, M.R., Ofuji, K., Satake, M., Yasumoto, T. and Botana, L.M. (2005) Azaspiracid-4 inhibits Ca2+entry by stored operated channels in human T lymphocytes.Biochemical Pharmacology, 69(11), 1627–1636.
Alfonso, A., Vieytes, M.R., Ofuji, K., Satake, M., Nicolaou, K.C., Frederick, M.O. and Botana, L.M. (2006) Azaspiracids modulate intracellular pH levels in human lymphocytes.Biochemical and Biophysical Re-search Communications, 346(3), 1091–1099.
Amzil, Z., Marcaillou-Le Baut, C. and Bohec, M. (1996) Unexplained toxicity in molluscs gathered during phytoplankton monitoring, inHarmful and Toxic Algal Blooms, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Toxic Phytoplankton, 1995 (eds. T. Yasumoto, Y. Oshima and Y. Fukuyo). Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Paris, pp. 543–546.
Anderson, D.M. (1994) Red tides.Scientific American, 271(2), 52–58.
Anderson, D.M., Andersen, P., Bricelj, V.M., Cullen, J.J. and Rensel, J.E. (2001)Monitoring and Management Strategies for Harmful Algal Blooms in Coastal Waters, APEC #201-MR-01.1, Asia Pacific Economic Program, Singapore, and Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Technical Series No. 59, Paris, 268 pp. Available from: http://www.whoi.edu/cms/files/Monitoring Management Report 24193.pdf Anon. (2001) FSAI (2001)Risk assessment of azaspiracids (AZAs) in shellfish. Food Safety Authority of
Ireland, 29 pp.
Anon. (2004) Report of the Joint FAO/IOC/WHOad hoc Expert Consultation on Biotoxins in Bivalve Molluscs, Oslo, Norway, 26–30 September 2004. Full report 40 pp; summary 8 pp. Available from:
ftp://ftp.fao.org/es/esn/food/biotoxin report en.pdf (full) and http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/
001394/139421e.pdf (summary)
Anon. (2005a) Analysis of marine biotoxins: Approaches to validation and regulatory acceptance of al-ternative methods to the mouse bioassay as method of reference, Position Paper nr. 013/2005 of the BfR of 7 April 2005, 42 pp. Available from: http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/245/position paper analysis of marine biotoxins.pdf
Anon. (2005b) Mouse bioassay not suitable as a reference method for the regular analysis of algae toxins in mussels. BfR Expert Opinion No. 032/2005 of 26 May 2005, 7 pp. Available from: http://www.bfr.bund.de/
cm/245/mouse bioassay not suitable as a reference method for the regular analysis of algae toxins in mussels.pdf
Anon. (2006a) Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme, Codex Committee on Fish and Fishery Products, Twenty-eighth Session, Beijing, China, 18–22 September 2006, Agenda Item 6 CX/FFP 06/28/6-Add.1, Proposed Draft Standard for Live and Raw Bivalve Molluscs: Report of the Working Group meeting to assess the advice from the Joint FAO/WHO/IOCAd Hoc Expert Consultation on Biotoxins in Bivalve Molluscs, 16 pp. Available from: ftp://ftp.fao.org/Codex/ccffp28/fp2806ae.pdf
Anon. (2006b) Risk assessment of azaspiracids (AZAs) in shellfish, August 2006. A report of the Scientific Committee of the Food Safety Authority of Ireland (FSAI), 39 pp. Available from:
http://www.fsai.ie/publications/other/AZAs risk assess aug06.pdf
Arias, H.R. (2006) Marine toxins targeting ion channels.Marine Drugs,4, 37–69.
Ares, I.R., Louzao, M.C., Espina, B., Vieytes, M.R., Miles, C.O., Yasumoto, T. and Botana, L.M. (2007) Lactone ring of pectenotoxins: A key factor for their activity on cytoskeletal dynamics.Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry, 19(5–6), 283–292.
Aune, T., Yasumoto, T. and Engeland, E. (1991) Light and scanning electron microscopic studies on effects of marine algal toxins toward freshly prepared hepatocytes.Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, 34, 1–9.
Aune, T. and Yndestad, M. (1993) Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, inAlgal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water (ed. I.R. Falconer). Academic Press, London, pp. 87–104.
Aune, T., Sørby, R., Yasumoto, T., Ramstad, H. and Landsverk, T. (2002) Comparison of oral and intraperi-toneal toxicity of yessotoxin towards mice.Toxicon, 40(1), 77–82.
Aune, T., Larsen, S., Aasen, J.A.B., Rehmann, N., Satake, M. and Hess, P. (2007) Relative toxicity of dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX-2) compared with okadaic acid, based on acute intraperitoneal toxicity in mice.
Toxicon, 49(1), 1–7.
Azanza, M.P.V., Azanza, R.V., Vargas, V.M.D. and Hedreyda, C.T. (2006) Bacterial endosymbionts of Pyro-dinium bahamense var. compressum. Microbial Ecology, 52(4), 756–764.
Backer, L.C., Fleming, L.E., Rowan, A.D. and Baden, D.G. (2004) Epidemiology, public health and human diseases associated with harmful marine algae, inManual on Harmful Marine Algae (eds. G.M. Hallegraeff, D.M. Anderson and A.D. Cembella). UNESCO, Paris, pp. 723–749.
Baden, D.G. and Trainer, V.J. (1993) Mode of action of toxins of seafood poisoning, inAlgal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water (ed. I.R. Falconer). Academic Press, London, pp. 49–74.
Baden, D.G., Bourdelais, A.J., Jacocks, H., Michelliza, S. and Naar, J. (2005) Natural and derivative brevetoxins: Historical background, multiplicity, effects. Environmental Health Perspectives, 113(5), 621–625.
Bagnis, R. (1993) Ciguatera fish poisoning, inAlgal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water (ed. I.R. Falconer).
Academic Press, London, pp. 105–115.
Benoit, E., Juzans, P., Legrand, A.M. and Molgo, J. (1996) Nodal swelling produced by ciguatoxin-induced selective activation of sodium channels in myelinated nerve-fibers.Neuroscience, 71(4), 1121–1131.
Berenguer, J.A., Gonzalez, L., Jimenez, I., Legarda, T.M., Olmedo, J.B. and Burdaspal, P.A. (1993) The effect of commercial processing on the paralytic shellfish poison (PSP) content of naturally contaminated Acanthocardia tuberculatum L. Food Additives and Contaminants, 10(2), 217–230.
Bernal, P. (2004) Preface toManual on Harmful Marine Algae (eds. G.M. Hallegraeff, D.M. Anderson and A.D. Cembella). UNESCO, Paris, pp. 5–6.
Botana, L. (ed.) (2007)Chemistry and Pharmacology of Marine Toxins. Blackwell Publishing, Ames, USA, 368 pp.
Bourdelais, A.J., Campbell, S., Jacocks, H., Naar, J., Wright, J.L.C., Carsi, J. and Baden, D.G. (2004) Brevenal is a natural inhibitor of brevetoxin action in sodium channel receptor binding assays.Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, 24(4), 553–563.
Bourdelais, A.J., Jacocks, H.M., Wright, J.L.C., Bigwarfe, P.M. and Baden, D.G. (2005) A new polyether ladder compound produced by the dinoflagellateKarenia brevis. Journal of Natural Products, 68(1), 2–6.
Bowden, B.F. (2006) Yessotoxins – polycyclic ethers from dinoflagellates: Relationships to diarrhetic shellfish toxins.Toxin Reviews, 25, 137–157.
Bricelj, V.M., Cembella, A.D., Laby, D., Shumway, S.E. and Cucci, T.L. (1996) Comparative physiological and behavioral responses to PSP toxins in two bivalve molluscs, the softshell clam,Mya arenaria, and
surfclam,Spisula solidissima, in Harmful and Toxic Algal Blooms, Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Toxic Phytoplankton, 1995 (eds. T. Yasumoto, Y. Oshima and Y. Fukuyo). Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Paris, pp. 405–408.
Briggs, L.R., Miles, C.O., Fitzgerald, J.M., Ross, K.M., Garthwaite, I. and Towers, N.R. (2004) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of yessotoxin and its analogues.Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52(19), 5836–5842.
Burgess, V. and Shaw, G. (2001) Pectenotoxins – an issue for public health: A review of their comparative toxicology and metabolism.Environment International, 27, 275–283.
Campora, C.E., Hokama, Y. and Ebesu, J.S.M. (2006) Comparative analysis of purified Pacific and Caribbean ciguatoxin congeners and related toxins using a modified ELISA technique.Journal of Clinical Laboratory Analysis, 20(3), 121–125.
Carmichael, W.W. and Falconer, I.R. (1993) Diseases related to freshwater blue-green algal toxins, and control measures, inAlgal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water (ed. I.R. Falconer). Academic Press, London, pp. 187–209.
Carmody, E.P., James, K.J. and Kelly, S.S. (1996) Dinophysistoxin-2: The predominant diarrhoetic shellfish toxin in Ireland.Toxicon, 34(3), 351–359.
Cembella, A.D., Shumway, S.E. and Lewis, N.I. (1993) Anatomical distribution and spatio-temporal variation in paralytic shellfish toxin composition in two bivalve species from the Gulf of Maine.Journal of Shellfish Research, 12(2), 389–403.
Cembella, A.D., Shumway, S.E. and Laroque, R. (1994) Sequestering and putative biotransformation of paralytic shellfish toxins by the sea scallop Placopecten magellanicus: Seasonal and spatial scales in natural populations.Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 180, 1–22.
Cembella, A.D., Lewis, N.I. and Quilliam, M.A. (2000) The marine dinoflagellateAlexandrium osten-feldii (Dinophyceae) as the causative organism of spirolide shellfish toxins. Phycologia, 67(1), 67–
74.
Cembella, A.D, Doucette, G.J. and Garthwaite, I. (2004)In vitro assays for phycotoxins, in Manual on Harmful Marine Algae (eds. G.M. Hallegraeff, D.M. Anderson and A.D. Cembella). UNESCO, Paris, pp. 297–345.
Chen, D.Z.X., Boland, M.P., Smillie, M.A., Klix, H., Ptak, C., Andersen, R.J. and Holmes, C.F.B. (1993) Identification of protein phosphatase inhibitors of the microcystin class in the marine environment.Toxicon, 31(11), 1407–1414.
Chorus, I., Falconer, I.R., Salas, H.J. and Bartram, J. (2000) Health risks caused by freshwater cyanobacteria in recreational waters.Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B, 3(4), 323–347.
Chou, T., Kamo, O. and Uemura, D. (1996) Pinnatoxin-A, a potent shellfish poison fromPinna muricata.
Tetrahedron Letters, 37(23), 4023–4026.
Ciminiello, P., Fattorusso, E., Forino, M., Magno, S., Poletti, R., Satake, M., Vivani, R. and Yasumoto, T.
(1997) Yessotoxin in mussels of the northern Adriatic Sea.Toxicon, 35(2), 177–183.
Ciminiello, P., Dell’Aversano, C., Fattorusso, E., Magno, S., Tartaglione L., Cangini, M., Pompei, M., Guerrini, F., Boni, L. and Pistocchi, R. (2006) Toxin profile ofAlexandrium ostenfeldii (Dinophyceae) from the Northern Adriatic Sea revealed by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry.Toxicon, 47(5), 597–604.
Codd, G.A., Bell, S.G., Kaya, K., Ward, C.J., Beattie, K.A. and Metcalf, J.S. (1999) Cyanobacterial toxins, exposure routes and human health.European Journal of Phycology, 34(4), 405–415.
Codd, G.A., Morrison, L.F. and Metcalf, J.S. (2005) Cyanobacterial toxins: Risk management for health protection.Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 203(3), 264–272.
Cook, A.C., Morris, S., Reese, R.A. and Irving, S.N. (2006) Assessment of fitness for purpose of an insect bioassay using the desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria L.) for the detection of paralytic shellfish toxins in shellfish flesh.Toxicon, 48(6), 662–671.
Colman, J.R., Twiner, M.J., Hess, P., McMahon, T., Satake, M., Yasumoto, T., Doucette, G.J. and Ramsdell, J.S. (2005) Teratogenic effects of azaspiracid-1 identified by microinjection of Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) embryos. Toxicon, 45(7), 881–890.
Cordier, S., Monfort, C., Miossec, L., Richardson, S. and Belin, C. (2000) Ecological analysis of digestive cancer mortality related to contamination by diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins along the coasts of France.
Environmental Research Section A, 84, 145–150.
de Fouw, J.C., van Egmond, H.P. and Speijers, G.J.A. (2001) Ciguatera fish poisoning: A review. RIVM Report No. 388802021, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, 3720BA, Bilthoven, The Netherlands. Available from: http://www.rivm.nl/bibliotheek/rapporten/388802021.pdf
de la Iglesia, P., Gago-Martinez, A. and Yasumoto, T. (2007) Advanced studies for the application of high-performance capillary electrophoresis for the analysis of yessotoxin and 45-hydroxyyessotoxin.Journal of Chromatography A, 1156(1–2), 160–166.
de la Rosa, L.A., Alfonso, A., Vilari˜no, N., Vieytes, M.R. and Botana, L.M. (2001) Modulation of cytosolic calcium levels of human lymphocytes by yessotoxin, a novel marine phycotoxin.Biochemical Pharmacol-ogy, 61(7), 827–833.
Eriksson, J.E., Meriluto, J.A.O. and Lindholm, T. (1989) Accumulation of a peptide toxin from the cyanobac-teriumOscillatoria agardhii in the freshwater mussel Anodonta cygnea. Hydrobiologia, 183, 211–216.
Falconer, I.R. (1991) Tumour promotion and liver injury caused by oral consumption of cyanobacteria.
Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality, 6, 177–184.
Falconer, I.R. (1993) Measurement of toxins from blue-green algae in water and foodstuffs, inAlgal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water (ed. I.R. Falconer). Academic Press, London, pp. 165–175.
Falconer, I.R., Choice, A. and Hosja, W. (1992) Toxicity of the edible mussel (Mytilus edulis) growing naturally in an estuary during a water bloom of the blue-green algaNodularia spumigena. Environmental Toxicology and Water Quality, 7, 119–123.
Falconer, I.R. and Humpage, A.R. (1996) Tumour promotion by cyanobacterial toxins.Phycologia, 35(suppl.
6), 74–79.
Fehling, J., Green, D.H., Davidson, K., Bolch, C.J. and Bates, S.S. (2004) Domoic acid production by Pseudo-nitzschia seriata (Bacillariophyceae) in Scottish waters. Journal of Phycology, 40(4), 622–
630.
Fern´andez, M.L., Richard, J.D.A. and Cembella, A. (2004a)In vivo assays for phycotoxins, in Manual on Harmful Marine Algae (eds. G.M. Hallegraeff, D.M. Anderson and A.D. Cembella). UNESCO, Paris, pp. 347–380.
Fern´andez, M.L., Shumway, S. and Blanco, J. (2004b) Management of shellfish resources, inManual on Harmful Marine Algae (eds. G.M. Hallegraeff, D.M. Anderson and A.D. Cembella). UNESCO, Paris, pp.
657–692.
Fladmark, K.E., Serres, M.H., Larsen, N.L., Yasumoto, T., Aune, T. and Døskeland, S.O. (1998) Sensitive detection of apoptogenic toxins in suspension cultures of rat and salmon hepatocytes.Toxicon, 36(8), 1101–1114.
Forsyth, C.J., Xu, J., Nguyen, S.T., Ingunn, A., Samdal, I.A., Briggs, L.R., Rundberget, T., Sandvik, M. and Miles, C.O. (2006) Antibodies with broad specificity to azaspiracids by use of synthetic haptens.Journal of the American Chemical Society, 128(47), 15114–15116.
Furey, A., Moroney, C., Bra˜na Magdalena, A., Saez, M.J.F., Lehane, M. and James, K.J. (2003) Geographical, temporal and species variation of the polyether toxins, azaspiracids, in shellfish.Environmental Science and Technology, 37, 3078–3084.
Fux, E., McMillan, D., Bire R. and Hess, P. (2007) Development of an ultra-performance liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry method for the detection of lipophilic marine toxins.Journal of Chro-matography A, 1157(1–2), 273–280.
Gago-Martinez, A., Rodriguez-Vazquez, J.A., Thibault, P. and Quilliam, M.A. (1996) Simultaneous occur-rence of diarrhetic and paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins in Spanish mussels in 1993.Natural Toxins, 4(2), 72–79.
Gallacher, S., Flynn, K.J., Franco, J.M., Brueggemann, E.E. and Hines, H.B. (1997) Evidence for production of paralytic shellfish toxins by bacteria associated withAlexandrium spp. (Dinophyta) in culture. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 63(1), 239–245.
Gallacher, S., Howard, F.G., Hess, P., Macdonald, E.M., Kelly, M.C., Bates, L.A., Brown, N., MacKenzie, M., Gillibrand, P.A. and Turrell, W.R. (2001) The occurrence of amnesic shellfish poisons in shellfish from Scottish waters, inHarmful Algal Blooms 2000 (eds. G.M. Hallegraeff, S.I. Blackburn, C.J. Bolch and R.J.
Lewis). Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, Paris, pp. 30–33.
Garthwaite, I., Ross, K.M., Miles, C.O., Briggs, L.R., Towers, N.R., Borrell, T. and Busby, B. (2001) Integrated enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay screening system for amnesic, neurotoxic, diarrhetic, and paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins found in New Zealand.Journal of AOAC International, 84(5), 1643–1648.
Gill, S., Murphy, M., Clausen, J., Richard, D., Quilliam, M., MacKinnon, S., LeBlanc, P., Mueller, R.
and Pulido, O. (2003) Neural injury biomarkers of novel shellfish toxins, spirolides: A pilot study using immunochemical and transcriptional analysis.Neurotoxicology, 24(4–5), 593–604.
Goldin, A.L., Snutch, T., Lubbert, H., Dowsett, A., Marshall, J., Auld, V., Downey, W., Fritz, L.C., Lester, H.A., Dunn, R., Catterall, W.A. and Davidson, N. (1986) Messenger RNA coding for only the alpha subunit of the rat brain Na channel is sufficient for expression of functional channels inXenopus oocytes.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA (Neurobiology), 83, 7503–7507.
Gonz´alez, A.V., Rodr´ıguez-Velasco, M.L., Ben-Gigirey, B. and Botana, L.M. (2006) First evidence of spirolides in Spanish shellfish.Toxicon, 48(8), 1068–1074.
Grimmelt, B., Nijjar, M.S., Brown, J., Macnair, N., Wagner, S., Johnson, G.R. and Amend, J.F. (1990) Relationship between domoic acid levels in the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) and toxicity in mice. Toxicon, 28(5), 501–508.
Halim, R. and Brimble, M.A. (2006) Synthetic studies towards the pectenotoxins: A review.Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry, 4, 4048–4058.
Hallegraeff, G.M. (2004) Harmful algal blooms: A global overview, inManual on Harmful Marine Algae (eds. G.M. Hallegraeff, D.M. Anderson and A.D. Cembella). UNESCO, Paris, pp. 25–49.
Hallegraeff, G.M., Anderson, D.M. and Cembella, A.D. (eds.) (2004)Manual on Harmful Marine Algae.
UNESCO, Paris, 793 pp.
Hamilton, B., Hurbungs, M., Jones, A. and Lewis, R.J. (2002) Multiple ciguatoxins present in Indian Ocean reef fish.Toxicon, 40(9),1347–1353.
Hampson, D.R. and Manalo, J.L. (1998) The activation of glutamate receptors by kainic acid and domoic acid.Natural Toxins, 6(3–4), 153–158.
Hatfield, C.L., Gauglitz, E.J., Barnett, H.J., Lund, J.A.K., Wekell, J.C. and Eklund, M. (1995) The fate of domoic acid in Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) as a function of processing. Journal of Shellfish Research, 14(2), 359–363.
Haywood, A.J., Steidinger, K.A., Truby, E.W., Bergquist, P.R., Bergquist, P.L., Adamson, J. and Mackenzie, L. (2004) Comparative morphology and molecular phylogenetic analysis of three new species of the genus Karenia (Dinophyceae) from New Zealand. Journal of Phycology, 40(1), 165–179.
Hess, P. (2008) What’s new in Toxins? inProceedings of the Twelfth International Conference on Harmful Algae, Copenhagen, 4–8 September 2006 (eds. Ø. Moestrup, G. Doucette, H. Enevoldsen, A. Godhe, G.
Hallegraeff, J. Lewis, B. Luckas, N. Lundholm, K. Rengefors, K. Sellner, K. Steidinger and P. Tester).
International Society for the Study of Harmful Algae (ISSHA) and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO.
Hess, P., McMahon, T., Slattery, D., Swords, D., Dowling, G., McCarron, M., Clarke, D., Devilly, L., Gibbons, W., Silke, J. and O’Cinneide, M. (2001)Biotoxin Chemical Monitoring in Ireland 2001, Proceedings of the Second Irish Marine Science Biotoxin Workshop, pp. 8–18. Available from: http://www.marine.ie/
NR/rdonlyres/200434CF-F390-4C71-B96E-8FC84060BF31/0/2nd proceedings2001.pdf
Hess, P., Nguyen, L., Aasen, J., Keogh, M., Kilcoyne, J., McCarron, P. and Aune, T. (2005) Tissue distribution, effects of cooking and parameters affecting the extraction of azaspiracids from mussels,Mytilus edulis, prior to analysis by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry.Toxicon, 46(1), 62–71.
Hess, P., McCarron, P. and Quilliam, M.A. (2006) Fit-for-purpose shellfish reference materials for internal and external quality control in the analysis of phycotoxins.Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 387(7), 2463–2474.
Hess, P. and Aasen, J.B. (2007) Chemistry, origins and distribution of yessotoxin and its analogues, in Chemistry and Pharmacology of Marine Toxins (ed. L. Botana). Blackwell Publishers, Ames, USA, pp. 187–202.
Holmes, C.F.B. (1991) Liquid chromatography-linked protein phosphatase bioassay: A highly sensitive ma-rine bioscreen for okadaic acid and related diarrhetic shellfish toxins.Toxicon, 29(4–5), 469–477.
Holmes, M.J., Lewis, R.J., Jones, A. and Hoy, A.W.W. (1995) Cooliatoxin, the first toxin fromCoolia montis (Dinophyceae).Natural Toxins, 3(5), 355–362.
Honkanen, R.E., Mowdy, D.E. and Dickey, R.W. (1996a) Detection of DSP-toxins, okadaic acid and dinoph-ysis toxin-1 in shellfish by the serine/threonine protein phosphatase assay.Journal of AOAC International, 79(6), 1336–1343.
Honkanen, R.E., Stapleton, J.D., Bryan, D.E. and Abercrombie, J. (1996b) Development of a protein phosphatase-based assay for the detection of phosphatase inhibitors in crude whole cell and animal extracts.
Toxicon, 34(11–12), 1385–1392.
Hu, T.M., Curtis, J.M., Oshima, Y., Quilliam, M.A., Walter, J.A., Watson-Wright, W.M. and Wright, J.L.C.
(1995a) Spirolide-B and spirolide-D, two novel macrocycles isolated from the digestive glands of shellfish.
Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, 20, 2159–2161.
Hu, T.M., Curtis, J.M., Walter, J.A., McLachlan, J.L. and Wright, J.L.C. (1995b) Two new water-soluble DSP toxin derivatives from the dinoflagellateProrocentrum maculosum – possible storage and excretion products of the dinoflagellate.Tetrahedron Letters, 36(51), 9273–9276.
Hu, T.M., Curtis, J.M., Walter, J.A. and Wright, J.L.C. (1995c) Identification of DTX-4, a new water-soluble phosphatase inhibitor from the toxic dinoflagellateProrocentrum lima. Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications, 5, 597–599.
Hu, T.M., Curtis, J.M., Walter, J.A. and Wright, J.L.C. (1996a) Characterization of biologically inactive spirolides E and F: Identification of the spirolide pharmacophore.Tetrahedron Letters, 37(43), 761–
764.
Hu, T.M., De Freitas, A.S.W., Curtis, J.M., Oshima, Y., Walter, J.A. and Wright, J.L.C. (1996b) Isolation and structure of prorocentrolide-B, a fast-acting toxin fromProrocentrum maculosum. Journal of Natural Products, 59(11), 1010–1014.
Hu, T., Burton, I.W., Cembella, A.D., Curtis, J.M., Quilliam, M.A., Walter, J.A. and Wright, J.L. (2001) Characterization of spirolides A, C, and 13-desmethyl C, new marine toxins isolated from toxic plankton and contaminated shellfish.Journal of Natural Products, 64(3), 308–312.
Hungerford, J.M. (2005) Committee on Natural Toxins and Food Allergens, Marine and Freshwater Toxins (report).Journal of AOAC International, 88(1), 299–313.
Hungerford, J.M. (2006) Committee on Natural Toxins and Food Allergens, Marine and Freshwater Toxins (report).Journal of AOAC International, 89(1), 248–269.
Inami, G.B., Crandall, C., Csuti, D., Oshiro, M. and Brenden, R.A. (2004) Feasibility of reduction in use of the mouse bioassay: Presence/absence screening for saxitoxin in frozen acidified mussel and oyster extracts from the coast of California within vitro methods. Journal of AOAC International, 87(5), 1133–1142.
Inoue, M., Miyazaki, K., Uehara, H., Maruyama, M. and Hirama, M. (2004) First- and second-generation total synthesis of ciguatoxin CTX3C.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 101(33), 12013–12018.
Ito, E. (2006) Verification of diarrhetic activities of PTX-2 and okadaic acidin vivo. Poster PO.08-01 presented at the12th International Conference on Harmful Algae, Copenhagen, Denmark, 4–8 September 2006, Inter-national Society for the Study of Harmful Algae. Available from: http://www.bi.ku.dk/hab/programme.asp Ito, E., Satake, M., Ofuji, K., Kurita, N., McMahon, T., James, K. and Yasumoto, T. (2000) Multiple organ damage caused by a new toxin azaspiracid, isolated from mussels produced in Ireland.Toxicon, 38(7), 917–930.
Ito, E., Satake, M., Ofuji, K., Higashi, M., Harigaya, K., McMahon, T. and Yasumoto, T. (2002) Chronic effects in mice caused by oral administration of sublethal doses of azaspiracid, a new marine toxin isolated from mussels.Toxicon, 40(2), 193–203.
Iverson, F., Truelove, J., Nera, E., Tryphonas, L., Campbell, J. and Lok, E. (1989) Domoic acid poisoning and mussel-associated intoxication: Preliminary investigations into the response of mice and rats.Food and Chemical Toxicology, 27, 377–384.
James, K.J., Moroney, C., Roden, C., Satake, M., Yasumoto, T., Lehane, M. and Furey, A. (2003) Ubiquitous
‘benign’ alga emerges as the cause of shellfish contamination responsible for the human toxic syndrome, azaspiracid poisoning.Toxicon, 41(2), 145–151.
James, K.J., Saez, M.J.F., Furey, A. and Lehane, M. (2004) Azaspiracid poisoning, the food-borne illness associated with shellfish consumption.Food Additives and Contaminants, 21(9), 879–892.
Jasperse, J.A. (ed.) (1993)Marine Toxins and New Zealand Shellfish, Proceedings of a Workshop on Research Issues, June 1993, The Royal Society of New Zealand, Miscellaneous Series, No. 24, 68 pp.
Jeffery, B., Barlow, T., Moizer, K., Paul, S. and Boyle, C. (2004) Amnesic shellfish poison.Food and Chemical Toxicology, 42(4), 545–557.
Jeglitsch, G., Rein, K., Baden, D.G. and Adams, D.J. (1998) Brevetoxin-3 (PbTx-3) and its derivatives modulate single tetrodotoxin-sensitive sodium channels in rat sensory neurons.Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 284, 516–525.
Jung, J.H., Sim, J.S. and Lee, C.-O. (1995) Cytotoxic compounds from a two-sponge association.Journal of Natural Products, 58(11), 1722–1726.
Kao, C.Y. (1993) Paralytic shellfish poisoning, inAlgal Toxins in Seafood and Drinking Water (ed. I.R.
Falconer). Academic Press, London, pp. 75–86.
Kishi, Y. (1989) Natural products synthesis: Palytoxin.Pure and Applied Chemistry, 61(3), 313–324.
Kobayashi, J., Shimbo, K., Kubota, T. and Tsuda, M. (2003) Bioactive macrolides and polyketides from marine dinoflagellates.Pure and Applied Chemistry, 75(2–3), 337–342.
Kobayashi, J. and Tsuda, M. (2004) Amphidinolides, bioactive macrolides from symbiotic marine dinoflag-ellates.Natural Product Reports, 21, 77–93.
Kodama, M., Doucette, G.J. and Green, D.H. (2006) Relationships between bacteria and harmful algae, in Ecology of Harmful Algae. Vol. 189: Ecological Studies (eds. E. Gran´eli and J.T. Turner). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 243–255.
Kong, K., Moussa, Z. and Romo, D. (2005) Studies toward a marine toxin immunogen: Enantioselective synthesis of the spirocyclic imine of (−)-gymnodimine. Organic Letters, 7(23), 5127–5130.
Kotaki, Y., Koike, K., Yoshida, M., Thuoc, C.V., Huyen, N.T.M., Hoi, N.C., Fukuyo, Y. and Kodama, M.
(2000) Domoic acid production inNitzschia sp. (Bacillariophyceae) isolated from a shrimp-culture pond in Do Son, Vietnam.Journal of Phycology, 36(6), 1057–1060.
Kotaki, Y., Lundholm, N., Onodera, H., Kobayashi, K., Bajarias, F.F.A., Furio, E.F., Iwataki, M., Fukuyo, Y. and Kodama, M. (2004) Wide distribution ofNitzschia navis-varingica, a new domoic acid-producing benthic diatom found in Vietnam.Fisheries Science, 70(1), 28–32.
Kuiper-Goodman, T., Falconer, I.R. and Fitzgerald, J. (1999) Human health aspects, inToxic Cyanobacteria in Water (eds. I. Chorus and J. Bartram). E. and F.N. Spon, London, pp. 113–153.
Kulagina, N.V., Twiner, M.J., Hess, P., McMahon, T., Satake, M., Yasumoto, T., Ramsdell, J.S., Doucette, G.J., Ma, W. and O’Shaughnessy, T.J. (2006) Azaspiracid-1 inhibits bioelectrical activity of spinal cord
Kulagina, N.V., Twiner, M.J., Hess, P., McMahon, T., Satake, M., Yasumoto, T., Ramsdell, J.S., Doucette, G.J., Ma, W. and O’Shaughnessy, T.J. (2006) Azaspiracid-1 inhibits bioelectrical activity of spinal cord