The right sneutrino-like states

Physical exercise has not only been found to have a positive influence on mental health and well-being, but substantial relationships have been found between exercise and the reduction of negative mood states (Morgan, 1997; Fox, 1999).

Contrary to this, the results (Table VII, page 71) show that there was no difference in general mood state between the athletic and control samples, for all but one month (February), where the athletic sample had a significantly higher general mood state (1.6±0.4). An increase in general mood state relates to an increased prevalence of negative moods. Further, negative mood ratings increased significantly in the athlete group two months prior to the race and elicited the only significant difference between the two groups. It was also at the same time that total training load peaked (month of February), further illustrating the sensitivity of the psychological markers (POMS and general mood states) to changes in training load performed. While it was expected that the athlete group would illustrate an ‘iceberg profile’ with lower negative, and higher positive profile of mood state (POMS) scores, results show that the mean POMS scores (positive and negative) for the athletes were all higher than the control group’s scores (Figure 18). These findings may suggest that the athlete’s were performing a training load beyond that of one which solely promotes physical well-being, and that as a result there may be higher negative mood states.

However, the other variables of measurement, including, among others, waking heart rate (WHR), sleep ratings and postural dizziness suggest that the athletes

were not performing an excessive amount of training, placing them at risk for overtraining. It has been stated that there is a paradox concerning the effects of exercise and mood states (Morgan et al., 1987). This was due to the confounding literature which shows positive mood states in athletes prior to becoming overtrained. There is a general agreement, however, that overtraining is characterised by a negative emotional state (Hooper et al., 1997), therefore, the longitudinal assessment of mood states can be a valuable diagnostic tool for determining excessive training stress as well as symptoms of the overtraining syndrome (OTS) (Hooper and Mackinnon, 1995).

The POMS technical update (McNair and Heuchert, 2003), illustrates the concern that there is with past literature’s inability to define which POMS score sheet has been utilised for analysis of results (Figure 18). The ‘iceberg profile’ (negative mood state T scores all fall below the population average of 50) which is said to be portrayed by athletes is only found when scored ‘right now’ on the college student norms score sheet but not when using the adult norms score sheet. This relationship is, however, not found when the same data is scored on the adult norms score sheet. While Figure 19 shows that there was a trend towards an

‘iceberg profile’, the changes to this profile over the months of training illustrated in Figure 19 alter this profile. The control showed a significantly similar trend to the athlete group. The mean scores on the adults norms sheet did not portray an

‘iceberg profile’ for the athletes but it did, however, also show no significant difference between the two groups.

Mood states have been found to fluctuate with significant changes in training volume and intensity (Morgan et al., 1987; Hooper et al., 1997). While there was a significant increase in bike training load in February, there were no significant increases in total training load from month one to month five. There was an expected, significant decrease in the training performed during the competition month (month six). Interestingly, fatigue scores in week 17 (month four) were significantly increased in comparison to weeks five and ten, which correlated to a

significant increase in bike training load (1856.9±1070.9). Interestingly, although run training did not significantly increase in February, it did reach its peak (1041.9±500.9) during this month, these two disciplines combined made up approximately 90% of total training during February. Figure 19 indicates that the period of peak training load (February) is correlated to an inversed iceberg profile (Morgan et al., 1987), which is indicative of non-functional overreaching and the OTS. The inversed iceberg is characterised by increased fatigue, depression and anger scores as well as reduced vigor scores, which was scored on the college norms score sheet. Therefore, pointing out the sensitivity of the POMS questionnaire to increases in training load performed by the athletes (Eichner, 1995).

The progression from March to April showed that although an inversed iceberg profile was attained during February, the reduction in training (taper period) from the peak total training was adequate and of sufficient time to produce the iceberg profile at the time of competition, a profile indicative of positive mental health that is associated with successful athletic performance (Morgan et al., 1987;

Kellmann and Gunther, 2000). Tension scores for the athletes were significantly higher during the two weeks prior to the race during week 21 (13.7±5.8) and week 22 (13.3±7.2). This increase in tension is to be expected in the weeks or days prior to such an event. While the athletes elicited significantly increased tension scores surrounding the event, they also showed an absence of depressed mood states. Therefore the increased tension scores are proposed to be facilitative rather than debilitative, motivating that action is needed to achieve performance goals (Lane, 2001).

Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) has been reported to significantly increase during periods of overtraining (Kellmann and Gunther, 2000). The athlete’s TMD was correlated to training load (Figure 26) and although not as strong as expected, there was a modest correlation (R²=0.44) between the two variables, this signifies that an increase in training load had some effect on mood disturbance of

the athletes (Lambert and Borresen, 2006). The negative POMS factor scores all showed positive relationships to total training load while vigor, the positive mood state showed a negative relationship. Depression (R²=0.69), tension (R²=0.65) and anger (R²=0.46), all showed modest correlations to training load, a finding which has previously been illustrated (Lane, 2001). A depressed mood has been suggested to create the inability to regulate the other dimensions of mood, thus leading to increases in anger, confusion, fatigue and tension, as well as a reduction in vigor (Terry and Lane, 2000). However, while tension and anger have moderate correlations with total training load, confusion, fatigue and vigor are weakly correlated to total training load.