Gender
Research suggests that attitudes toward IT differ between the genders. Males tend to show more positives attitudes toward IT, regardless of the level of familiarity, while female attitudes become more positive as the level of familiarity increases (Schumacher & Morahan-Martin 2001). Igbaria & Chidambaram (1997) investigate the effect of gender on the use of IT; they propose that substantial gender differences exist. For instance, women were found, on average, to be somewhat younger and less experienced than men with lower salaries and fewer opportunities to interact with people outside their departmental boundaries. Thomas (1996) examined the low representation of females in computer studies, programming, and other IT-related courses; he concludes that males and females process information differently and that males have greater analytical and quantitative skills than females. Thus, he concludes that computer anxiety is more often associated with females. Forster (2000) argues that new communication technologies may be a powerful ally for women in organisations since the work of organisations will
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more and more rely on brainpower. As a result, traditional barriers between men and women in organisations will be reduced. Kay (1992) studies the methods used to investigate gender differences in computer-related behaviour and revealed that of the ninety-eight studies of attitude measurements, researchers found that forty eight studies showed males do have more positive attitudes toward IT; in fourteen occasions, females were found to have more positive attitudes; in the remaining thirty-six studies, no differences were reported. The observed contradiction concerning the relationship between IT and gender implies the need for further analysis and narrower classification of attitudes.
The rareness of IT-related studies in the Arab countries is a major issue. However, in Arab society men tend to be more active in terms of their social life than women. This may create some differences in relation to their perception of IT and DM use in general because men are more exposed to IT and DM discussions and usage. However, the use of some simple computer applications by women for secretarial work may bridge this divide and create favourable attitudes towards more advanced computer applications such as DM. Based on this; the following research question was proposed.
Are there significant differences between male and female managers regarding their
attitudes towards IT and DM? Age and organisational experience
Gardner et al. (1993) identified a positive correlation between experiences with IT and computers and beliefs towards them, negative experiences with IT correlated with negative beliefs and attitudes toward the technology. Accordingly, individuals that had positive experiences also espoused positive beliefs and attitudes. According to Thomas (1996) inexperienced users are expected to view IT as impersonal, unapproachable, complex, or dull, and require a high level of technical skills and computer knowledge to use it. Carnoy (1997) indicated that computer literacy can reduce resistance to the adoption of new technology. Therefore, older and more experienced managers are more
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likely to face IT literacy problems that make them resist the use of IT (Carnoy 1997). Some writers suggested a link between experience, age and IT literacy, claiming that older managers may fail to match the technical requirements of IT adoption such as possessing a sufficient IT literacy (Kaul 1997; Bennett & Muraleedharan 2000; Kakabadse et al. 2003). Accordingly, those managers will expect to be displaced by younger and technically experienced workers (Jasperson et al. 2005).
On the basis of the above discussion, the following research questions were proposed.
Is age influential in the attitudes of managers towards IT and DM?
Is the length of work experience influential in the attitudes of managers towards IT
and DM? Education level
Another significant characteristic that may affect managers' attitudes towards IT and DM is the level of education. Prior research has shown that individuals having more years of formal educations are expected to adopt new technologies earlier than the ones who have less (Rogers 1995; Hong & Kim 2002). However, level of education is more dominant in developing countries where people have fewer opportunities to experience higher education, due to the difficult financial circumstances and high educational fees. The situation is different in developed countries where education is more widely available and at affordable cost. This, in turn, may create major differences between countries in relation to the impact of both age and educational level on the IT and DM adoption. Thus, it is not a surprise that some studies conducted in some developed countries (e.g. (Tabak & Barr 1999) have found no significant relationships between education level or age and intentions to adopt innovations. To investigate this issue within the context of Jordanian publicly listed companies, the following research question was proposed.
Is there any significant relationship between the manager's level of education and
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Span of control refers to how relations are structured between leaders and subordinates in an organisation. A wide span of control exists when a manager supervises many subordinates and a narrow span of control exists when a manager supervises few subordinates. Thus, a wide span of control is seen as an important source of information and knowledge, including technical knowledge and this, in turn, may encourage managers to follow certain behaviours regarding all organisational aspects, including any potential IT and DM adoption (Hill & Hoskisson 1987; Topp & Desjardins 2011). Accordingly, this research is seen as an opportunity to draw attention to this issue, which it appears has not received any attention in previous studies. For this reason and in order to investigate this issue, the following research question was proposed.
Is there any significant relationship between the manager's span of control and
his/her attitudes towards IT and DM?
4.6 Conceptual Framework
Based on the review of literature presented in the last three chapters and the research questions that have been proposed, figure 4.1 shows the research conceptual framework.
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Figure 4.1: Research conceptual framework
This model aims to assess associations between demographic characteristics and managers' attitudes towards IT and DM. It also suggests a possible relationship between managers' attitudes towards IT and DM and their style of management.
4.7 Summary
This chapter provided a review of the attitude of managers toward IT and DM and the possible effect of demographic characteristics on these attitudes. Most studies have been carried in developed countries with few s having considered these issues from the perspective of a developing country.
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5 Research Methodology
5.1 Introduction
In this study a mixed methodology approach was adopted combining quantitative and qualitative methodologies. A survey was used to assess managers' attitudes towards the adoption of DM, as well as to identify the relationship between these attitudes and management styles within the context of publicly listed companies. Qualitative interviews were subsequently utilised to enrich the survey data and explore a number of issues raised by the survey responses.
5.2 Research design
The research design chosen is appropriate to the subject investigated. It is consistent with the objectives of the study and it is felt that the procedures adopted in data collection are appropriate to obtain answers to the research questions posed (Cooper et al. 2003). The sequence of the research process follows what Creswell (2009) defines as “sequential procedures, in which the researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand the findings of one method with another method”. Creswell (2009) also states that the study may begin with a quantitative method in which theories or concepts are tested, to be followed by a qualitative method involving detailed exploration of a few cases or individuals. This research started by collecting and evaluating research literature, followed by development of a quantitative survey instrument to test the relationship between the variables. Finally, qualitative interviews were conducted to elaborate and to refine the quantitative results. The structure of the research design adopted is illustrated in Figure 5.1. Different stages in the research design are explained and justified throughout this chapter.
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5.3 Research philosophy
Arbnor & Bjerke (2008) described a number of closely related factors that shape the methods used by researchers to create knowledge. Among these factors are the researcher’s background assumptions, beliefs, and paradigms. They described a paradigm as including such notions as one’s conceptions of reality, science, and scientific ideals, as well as one’s sense of ethics and aesthetics. Kuhn (1996) and Arbnor & Bjerke (2008) have provided two significantly different views of paradigm formation in the social sciences. Kuhn first discussed how various natural science paradigms emerged, beginning with mathematics and astronomy, Information Quality Strategy continuing through more recently developed scientific fields such as motion, heat, historical geology, and biology, and then stated, “It remains an open question what parts of social science have yet acquired such paradigms at all” (Kuhn 1996, p. 15). Arbnor & Bjerke (2008), on the other hand, stated, “We (and many others) have found Kuhn’s type of analysis rewarding at the same time that we note an important difference between the natural and social sciences. In the natural sciences, old paradigms are replaced by new ones; in the social sciences, old paradigms usually survive alongside new ones” (Arbnor & Bjerke 2008, p. 13).
The DM adoption literature exemplifies the notion that multiple paradigms can and do survive alongside one another. Research on the topic spans multiple paradigms and includes the use of a wide assortment of methodological approaches, depending on the research question under consideration. As such, within the DM adoption field, the ability for an individual researcher to flexibly select from among multiple paradigms and multiple methodologies is seen as advantageous. This ability fits well within what Greene et al. (2005) referred to as the “pragmatic stance” (p. 275), which they described as “an inclusive philosophical framework within which multiple assumptions and diverse methods can comfortably reside” (Greene et al. 2005, p. 275).
Traditionally, positivist, post-positivist, interpretivist and critical are the common paradigms that have usually been adopted in IT and DM adoption research (Orlikowski
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& Baroudi 1991; Klein & Myers 2001). Although these paradigms are different, in practice the differences are not so clear where the results of one paradigm tend to get mixed or integrated with the results of other paradigms (Myers & Avison 2002; Neuman 2003). Therefore, combining several paradigms is a common practice within IT and DM adoption research (Klein & Myers 2001; Mingers 2001).