The concept of the electronic or e-nose evolved from the use of gas sensors in the mining industry. Its principal was laid in the need to develop objectivity in the sensory evaluation of aromatic materials, which is subjective due to human interpretation of odours. The e-nose is a fast method for assessing volatiles for their identification, authentication, process control and product blending.
E-nose instrumentation comprises a sensory input device with a receptor to transmit data to a data acquisition and interpretation system [123]. Most sensors are chemically based with a catalytic of metal oxide coating of a ceramic pellet where changes in electrical charge are transmitted to the data acquisition receptor for interpretation. Some sensors utilize polymers which pick up variances in conductivity when in contact with different gasses. Compound polarity is thus critical to sensitivity. Other sensors are based on quartz which oscillate according to changes in the surrounding mass. The data acquisition receptor transmits data to a database which recognizes volatile compounds through pattern recognition algorithms.
Usually an e-nose is very spectrum specific depending upon the range variance that each type of sensor can provide and the algorithms programmed into the database. However the advantage of the e-nose is that it can provide a quick detection test without suffering human fatigue, providing objective results each time. The e-nose has found application in;
The US FDA has used the device to detect the freshness of fish through monitoring the level of amines in samples,
The baking industry has used the device to control the blending and roasting of food products where amino acids and reducing sugar reactions can create a number of aromatic compounds, some desirable and some undesirable in the product, The monitoring of cheese maturity and their authentication,
The prediction of food shelf life,
In microwave ovens to detect overcooking, and
In agriculture to detect insect damage and mold growth on crops.
The e-nose is being developed as a tool in food processing where the aroma profile of food is influenced by the variation of raw materials which influence aroma/taste profiles, time and freshness, temperature, and the reducing activity of sugars and amino acids on constituents within the food during storage and processing. The e-nose is also being developed to assist in agriculture in applications such as the identification of different hop
varieties [124]. However, this technique must be used with knowledge of the influences of climatic, soil, growth and nutrient factors upon the aromatic constituents of crops, so that correct correlations can be made between the selected markers, harvest maturity and variety etc [125]. One of the challenges for e-nose development for agriculture is the creation of standardization so results can be compared and correlated with specific crop conditions.
The field of analysis of essential oils is rapidly changing with a number of techniques taking on more importance. Researchers are finding new methods to gain better sensitivity, better separations and solve selectivity problems. This is leading to the growing importance of additional chromatography and spectroscopic methods as well as the increased utilization of UV spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, atomic absorption spectroscopy and infra red spectroscopy as standard essential oil analysis methods in the industry [126].
However researchers have made many mistakes and errors with modern analytical techniques in the identification of new compounds [127]. Even though modern analytical techniques can identify 30-40 compounds in essential oils in under an hour, which would have taken years to do, GC-MS have great limitations in identifying new compounds [128].
The old benchtop organic chemistry techniques still offer some advantages in isolating specific compounds, which greatly assists in their positive identification. Important organic benchtop tests to determine chemical properties of essential oils include;
The determination of acids, The determination of esters,
The determination of alcohols through acetylation, The determination of tertiary alcohols,
The determination of aldehydes and ketones, The determination of phenols, and
Specific tests for individual compounds [129].
Some understanding of the plant metabolism, the pathways and the relationships between plant and chemical will provide great insights in the field development stage of an essential oil as well as the extraction procedure. This is still a subject where knowledge is in its infancy and there maybe some keys in this knowledge for creating a regime of optimal production.
The key is to look for relationships in the plant metabolism with propagation, cultivation, pre-extraction, extraction and storage practices. Knowledge of essential oil chemistry is also necessary for selecting essential oils to produce in identifying potential and dealing with users in the industry.
R
EFERENCES[1] Vankar, P. S., (2004), Essential Oils and Fragrances from Natural Sources, Resonance, Vol. 9. No., 4. P. 35.
[2] Pichersky, E., and Gang, D. R., (2000), Genetics and biochemistry of secondary metabolites in plants: An evolutionary perspective, Trends Plant Sci. 205, pp. 439-445.
[3] Bhattacharya, E., and Rajam, M. V., (2007), Polyamine Biosynthetic Pathway: A Potential Target for Enhancing Alkaloid Production, In: Verpoorte, R., Alfermann, A.,
W., and Johnson, T., S., (Eds.), Applications of Plant Metabolic Engineering, Netherlands, Springer.
[4] Lokstein, H., Hedtke, B., Mustroph, A., and Kuhn, C., (2006), Signals, Sensing, and Plant Primary Metabolites, Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, Vol. 25, pp. 339-345.
[5] Beavo, J. A., and Brinton, L. L., (2002), Cyclic nucleotide research – still expanding after half a century, Nat Rev Mol Biol. Vol. 3. pp. 710-718.
[6] Bridges, D., Fraser, M. E., and Moorhead, G. B. G., (2005), Cyclic nucleotide binding proteins in the Arabidopsis thaliana and Oryza sativa genomes, BMC Bioinformatics, Vol. 6., No. 6.
[7] See: Balague, C., Lin, B., Alcon, C., Flottes, G., Malmstrom, S., Kohler, C., Neuhaus, G., Pelletier, G., Gaymard, F., and Roby, D., (2003), HLM1, an essential signalling component in the hypersensitive response, is a member of the cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel family, Plant Cell, Vol. 15, pp. 365-379, Leng, Q., Mercier, R., W., Yao, W., and Berkowitz, G. A., (1999), Cloning and first functional characterisation of a plant cyclic nucleotide-gated cation channel, Plant Physiol, Vol. 121, pp. 753-761, Leng, Q., Mercier, R. W., Hua, B. G., and Berkowitz, G. A., (2002), Electrophysical analysis of cloned cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels, Plant Physiol, Vol. 128, pp.
400-410, Wang, K. L., Li, H., and Ecker, J. R., (2002), Ethylene biosynthesis and signalling networks, Plant Cell, Vol. 14 (Supp), pp. 131-151, Hua, B. G., Mercier, R.
W., Zielinski, R. E., and Berkowitz, G. A., (2003), Functional interaction of calmodulin with a plant cycle nucleotide gated cation channel, Plant Physiol Biochem, Vol. 41, pp. 945-954, Kracht, M., Shiroo, M., Marshall, C. J., Hsuan, J. J., and Saklatvala, J., (1994), Interleukin-1 activates a novel protein kinase that phosphorylates the epidermal- growth-factor receptor peptide T669, Biochem Journal, Vol. 302 (Pt 3), pp. 897-905, Kohler, C., Neuhaus, G., (2000), Characterisation of calmodulin binding to cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels from Arabidopsis thaliana, FEBs Lett, Vol. 471, pp. 133- 136, White, P. J., Bowen, H. C., Nichols, V., and Davis J. M., (2002), Genes for calcium-permeable channels in the plasma membrane of plant root cells, Biochem Biophys Acta, 1564, pp. 299-309, Jabs, T., Tschope, M., Colling, C., Hahlbrock, K., and Scheel, D., (1997), Elicitor-stimulated ion fluxes and O2-from the oxidative burst are essential components in triggering defence gene activation and phytoalexin synthesis in parsley, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, Vol. 94, pp. 4800-4805, Maathuis, F. J., and Sanders, D., (2001), Sodium uptake in Arabidopsis roots is regulated by cyclic nucleotides, Plant Physiol, Vol. 177, pp. 1617-1625.
[8] Herbers, K., (2003), Vitamin Production in Transgenic Plants, Journal of Plant Physiology, Vol. 160. No. 7. pp. 821-829.
[9] Smirnoff, N., Conklin, P. L., and Loewus, F. A., (2001), Biosynthesis of Ascorbic Acid in Plants: A Renaissance, Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol. Vol. 52. pp. 437-467.
[10] Kumar, S., A., and Appaji Rao, N., (1962), Hydrolysis of riboflavin by plants, Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences, Vol. 18, No. 7, pp. 320-321.
[11] Dong, H., and Ber, S. V., (2004), Riboflavin Induces Disease Resistance in Plants by Activating a Novel Signal Transduction Pathway, Phytopatholgy, Vol. 90, No. 8, pp.
801-811.
[12] See; Falco M.C., Marbach P.A.S., Pompermayer P., Lopes F.C.C., Silva-Filho M. C., (2001), Mechanisms of sugarcane response to herbivory. Genet. Mol. Biol., Vol. 24,
pp.113-122, Silva C.P., Terra W.R,, Grossi de Sá M.F., Samuels R.I., Isejima E.M,, Bifano T.D., Almeida J.S., (2001), Induction of digestive a-amylases in larvae of Zabrotes subfasciatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) in response to ingestion of common bean a-amylase inhibitor 1. J. Insect Physiol. Vol. 47. pp. 1283-1290, Pompermayer P., Lopes A.R,, Terra W.R,, Parra J.R.P,, Falco M.C,, Silva-Filho M.C., (2001), Effects of soybean proteinase inhibitor on development, survival and reproductive potential of the sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis. Entomol. Exp. Appl. Vol. 99, pp.79-85, Frey M., Stettner C., Paré P.W., Schmelz E.A., Tumlinson J.H., Gierl A., (2001), An herbivore elicitor activates the gene for indole emission in maize, Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA, Vol. 97, pp.14801-14806, Stotz, H.U., Pittendrigh B.R., Kroymann J., Weniger K., Fritsche J., Bauke A,, Mitchell-Olds T., (2000), Induced plant defense responses against chewing insects. Ethylene signalling reduces resistance of Arabidopsis against Egyptian cotton worm but not diamondback moth. Plant Physiol, Vol.124, pp.1007- 1017, Reymond P., Weber H., Damond M., Farmer E.E., (2000), Differential gene expression in response to mechanical wounding and insect feeding in Arabidopsis. The Plant Cell Vol. 12, pp. 707-719, Arimura G.I., Ozawa R., Shimoda T., Nishioka T., Boland W., Takabayashi J., (2000), Herbivory-induced volatiles elicit defense genes in lima bean leaves, Nature, Vol. 406, pp. 512-515.
[13] Thimm, O., Blasing, O., Gibon, Y., Nagel, A., Meyer, S., (2004), MAPMAN: a user- driven tool to display genomics data sets onto diagrams of metabolic pathways and other biological processes, Plant J., Vol. 37. pp. 914-939.
[14] Blasing, O. E., Gibon, Y., Gunther, M., Hohne, M., Morcuende, R., (2005), Sugars and circadian regulation make major contributions to the global regulation of diurnal gene expression in Arabidopsis, Plant Cell, Vol. 17, pp. 3257-3281.
[15] See Buchanan, B., Gruissem, W., and Jones, R., L., (Eds.), (2002), Biochemistry &
Molecular Biology of Plants, Weinheim, Wiley-VCH, Tullberg, A., Krassimir, A., Pfannschmidt, T., and Allen, J. F., (2000), Photosynthetic Electron Flow Regulates Transcription of the psaB Gene in Pea (Pisum sativum L.) Chloroplasts Through the Redox State of the Plastoquinone Pool, Plant and Cell Physiology, Vol. 41. No. 9. pp.
1045-1054, Pesaresi, P., Gardner, N. A., Masiero, S., Dietzmann, A., Eichacker, L., Wickner, R., Salamini, F., and Leister, D., (2003), Cytoplasmic N-Terminal Protein Acetylation Is Required for Efficient Photosynthesis in Arabidopsis, Plant Cell Review, Vol. 10, and Holt, N. E., Zigmantas, D., Valkunas, L., Li, X. P., and Niyogi, K. K., (2005), Carotenoid cation formation and the regulation of photosynthetic light harvesting, Science, Vol. 307, pp. 433-436, for examples.
[16] Lutke-Brinkhaus, F., and Kleinig, H., (1987), Formation of isopentenyl diphosphate via mevalonate does not occur within etioplasts and etiochloroplasts of mustard (Sinapis alba. L.) seedlings, Planta, Vol. 171, No. 3. pp. 406-411.
[17] Herrmann, K. M., and Weaver, L. M., (1999), The shikimate pathway, Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, Vol. 50. pp. 473-503.
[18] http://www.weizmann.ac.il/Plant_Sciences/aharoni/psMetabolism.html, (Accessed 13th October, 2007)
[19] Ananthakrishnan, T. N., (1999), Induced responses, signal diversity and plant defense:
Implications in insect phytophagy, Curr. Sci. Vol. 76. 1999, pp. 285-290.
[20] Diome, C., Mitaine-Offer, A-C., Miyamoto, T., Delaude, C., Mirjolet, J-F., Duchamp, O., and Lacaille-Dubois, M-A., (2007), Saponins from the Roots of Nylandtia spinosa, Journal of Natural Products, 10.1021.
[21] Lokesh Joshi, J., Van Eck, K. M., Di Silvestro, R., Blake (Nieto), M. E., Ganapathi, T., Haridas, V., Gutterman, J. U., and Armtzen, C. J., (2002), Metabolomics of Plant Saponins: Bioprospecting Triterpene Glycoside Diversity with Respect to Mammalian Cell Targets, OMICS: A Journal of Integrative Biology, Vol. 6., No. 3. pp. 235-246, and Hostettmann, K., (1984), On the use of plants and plant-derived compounds for the control of schistosomaisis, Naturwissenschaften, Vol. 71. No. 5. pp. 247-251.
[22] Hatanaka, A., Kaiiwara, T., and Sekiya, J., (1987), Biosynthesis pathway for C6- aldehydes formation from linolenic acid in green leaves, Chem Phys. pp. 341-361.
[23] Haruta, M., Major, I. T., Christopher, M. E., Patton, J. J., Constable, C. P., (2001), A Kunitz trypsin inhibitor gene family from trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides, Michx.): cloning, functional expression, and induction by wounding and herbivory, Plant Molecular Biology, Vol. 46. pp. 347-359.
[24] Fordyce, J. A., and Agawal, A. A., (2001), The role of plant trichomes and caterpillar group size on growth and defense of the pipevine swallowtail Battus philenor, Journal of Animal Ecology, Vol. 70. pp. 997-1005.
[25] Birkett, M. A., Campbell, C. A. M., Chamberlain, K., Guerrieri, E., Hick, A. J., Martin, J. L., Matthes, M., Napier, J. A., Petterson, J., Pickett, J. A., Poppy, G. M., Pow, E. M., Pye, B. J., Smart, L. E., Wadhams, G. H., Wadhams, L. J., and Woodcock, C. M., (2000), New roles for cis-jasmone as an insect semiochemcial and in plant defense, Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, Vol. 97. pp. 9329-9334.
[26] Scott, J. G., and Wen, Z. M., (2001), Cytochromes, P450 of insects: the tip of the iceberg, Pest Management Science, Vol. 57. pp. 515-967.
[27] Angerl, A. R., (1990), Furanococoumarin induction in wild parsnip: evidence for an induced defense against herbivores, Ecology, Vol. 71. pp. 1926-1932.
[28] Nishida, R., (2002), Sequestration of defensive substances from plants by Lepidoptera, Annu. Rev. Entomol, Vol. 47. P. 47.
[29] Silva, C. P., Terra, W. R., Grossi de Sa, M. F., Samuels, R. I., Isejima, E. M., Bifano, T. D., Almeida, J. S., (2001), Induction of digestive a-amylases in larae of Zabrotes subfasciatus (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) in response to ingestion of common bean a- amylasw inhibitor 1, Journal of Insect Physiology, Vol. 47. pp. 1283-1290.
[30] See: Anderson, D. C., (1987), Below-ground herbivory in natural communities: A review emphasising fossorial animals, The Quarterly Review of Biology, Vol. 62. No.
3. pp. 262-282., Bezemer, T. M., Wagenaar, R., Van Dam, N. M., and Wackers, F. L., (1987), Interactions between above- and below-ground insect herbivores as mediated by the plant defence system, Oikos, Vol. 101, No. 3., P. 555.
[31] Weissser, W. W., and Siemann, E., (2004), The various effects of insects on ecosystem functioning, in Weissser, W. W., and Siemann, E., (Eds.), Insects and Ecosystems function, Ecological Studies, Vol. 173. pp. 3-24.
[32] Mello, M. O. and Silva-Filho, M. C., (2002), Plant-Insect interactions: an evolutionary arms race between two distinct defense mechanisms, Brazillian Journal of Plant Physiology, Vol. 14. No. 2.
[33] Futujma, P., and Slatkin, M., (1983), Introduction, in Futujma, P., and Slatkin, M., (Eds.), Coevolution, Sunderland, Sinaver Associates Inc. MA. pp. 1-13.
[34] Hochuli, M. D., (2001), Insect herbivory and ontogeny: how do growth and development influence behaviour, morphology and host use?, Austral Ecology, Vol.
26. No. 5. pp. 563-570.
[35] Porter, N. G., Smale, P. E., Nelson, M. A., Hay, A. J., van Klink, J. W., and Dean, C.
M., (1998), Variability in essential oil chemistry and plant morphology within a Leptospermum scoparium population, New Zealand Journal of Botany, Vol. 36. pp.
125-133.
[36] Eskin, N. A. M., (1979), Plant Pigments, Flavours and Textures, New York, Academic Press.
[37] Calkin, R., and Jellinek, J. S., (1994), Perfumery: Practice and Principals, New York, John Wiley and Sons, P. 216.
[38] Mountfort, D. O., White, D., and Asher, R. A., (1990), Oxidation of Lignin-Related Aromatic Alcohols by Cell Suspensions of Methylosinus trichosporium, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 56. No. 1. pp. 245-249.
[39] Luckner, M., (1984), Secondary Metabolism in Microorganisms, Plants and Animals, Berlin, Springer-Verlag.
[40] Christensen, L. P., Edelenbos, M., and Kreutzmann, S., (2007), Fruits and Vegetables of Moderate Climate, in Berger, R., G., (Ed.), Flavors and Fragrances: Chemistry, Bioprocessing and Sustainability, Heidelberg, Springer, pp. 137-138.
[41] Croteau, R., and Karp, F., (1991), Origin of Natural Odorants, in Muller, P., M., and Lamparsky, D., (Eds.), Perfumes: Art, Science and Technology, London, Blackie Academic & Professional, P. 110.
[42] Belitz, H. D., Grosch, W., and Schieberle, P., (2004), Food Chemistry, 3rd Edition, Berlin, Springer.
[43] Evens, P. T., and Malmbery, D., (1989), Do polyamines have roles in plant development? Annu. Rev. Plant. Physiol. Plant Mol. Biol., Vol. 40, pp. 235-269.
[44] Su, C. Y., Hwang, M. T., and Wang, H. C., (1982), Tests of attractants for the banana thrips, Thrips hawaiiensis Morgan, in the laboratory, Natl. Taiwan Univ. Phytopathol.
Entomol, Vol. 9, pp. 92-97.
[45] Tamotsu, M., Toshiro, I., and Maekawa, M., (2000), Methyl Anthranilate as an Attractant for Two Thrips Species and the Thrips Parasitoid Ceranisus menes, Journal of Chemical Ecology, Vol. 26, No. 11. pp. 2557-2565.
[46] Kobayashi, M., Izui, H., Nagasawa T., and Yamada, H., (1993), Nitrilase in Biosynthesis of the Plant Hormone Indole-3-Acetic Acid from Indole-3-Acetonitrile:
Cloning of the Alcaligenes Gene and Site-Directed Mutagenesis of Cysteine Residues, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 90, pp. 247-251.
[47] Goeke, A., (2002), Sulphur-containing Odorants in fragrance chemistry, Sulphur Reports, Vol. 23, No. 3. pp. 243-278.
[48] Kulam, A., and Szopa, J., (2007), Catecholamines are active compounds in plants, Plant Science, Vol. 172, No. 3. March, pp. 433-440.
[49] Schmidt, A., and Jager, K., (1992), Open questions about sulphur metaobolism in plants, Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology, Vol. 43, pp.
325-349.
[50] Kopriva, S., and Koprivova, A., (2004), Plant adenosine 5‘-phosphosulphate reductase:
the past, the present, and the future, Journal of Experimental Botany, Vol. 55, No. 404, pp. 1775-1783.
[51] Vokou, D., and Margaris, N. S., (1986), Variation of volatile oil concentration of Mediterranean aromatic shrubs Thymus capitatus Hoffmag et Link, Satureja thymbra L., Teucrium polium L., and Rosmarinus officinalis L., International Journal of Biometeorology, Vol. 30, pp. 157-155.
[52] Putievsky, E., Ravid, U., and Dudai, N., (1988), Phenological and seasonal influences on essential oil of a cultivated clone of Origanum vulgare, Journal of Food and Agricultural Science, Vol. 43, pp. 225-228.
[53] Clark, R. J., and Menary, R. C., (1979), The importance of harvest date and plant density on the yield and quality of Tasmanian peppermint oil, Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science, Vol. 104, pp. 702-706.
[54] Hess, D., Die Blute, Stuttgart, Ulmer, 1983.
[55] Kaiser, R., (1991), Trapping, Investigation and Reconstitution of Flower Scents, In:
Muller, P., M., and Lamparsky, D., (Eds.), Perfumes: Art, Science and Technology, London, Blackie Academic & Professional, P. 222.
[56] Overland, L., (1960), Endogenous rhythm in opening and odor of flowers of Cestrum nocturnum AM, Journal of Botany, Vol. 47. pp. 378-382.
[57] Nilsson L. A., (1978), Pollination ecology and adaptation of Platanthera chlorantha, Bot. Not., Vol. 131, pp. 35-51
[58] See for example Matile, P., and Altenburger, R., (1988), Rhythms of fragrance emission in flowers, Planta, Vol. 174, pp. 242-247, see also Kaiser, R., (1991), Trapping, Investigation and Reconstruction of Flower Scents, In: Muller, P. M., and Lamparsky, D., Perfumes: Art, Science & Technology, London, Blackie Academic and Professional, pp. 213-250.
[59] Mastelic, J., Milos, M., and Kustrak, D., (2000), Free and Glycosidically Bound Volatiles of Mentha citrate, Ehrh., Croatica Chemica Acta, Vol. 73, No. 3. pp. 781-794.
[60] Loomis, W., D., and Croteau, R., (1980), In: Stumpf (Ed.), The Biochemistry of Plants, Vol. 4. Academic Press, London, pp. 363-418.
[61] Guenther, E., (1972), The Essential Oils, Vol. 1., Van Nostrand Malabar, Florida, (reprinted by Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co.), P. 169.
[62] Luckner, M., (1990), Secondary metabolism in microorganisms, plants, and animals, 3rd Edition, Berlin, Springer-Verlag, P. 563.
[63] Mann, J., Davidson, R. S., Hobbs, J. B., Banthorpe, D. V., and Harborne, J. B., (1994), Natural Products, Harlow, U.K., Addison Wesley Longman Ltd., pp. 308-309.
[64] Himejima, M., Hobson., K., R., Otsuka, T., Wood, D., L., and Kubo, I., (1992), Antimicrobial terpenes from oleoresins of Ponderosa pine tree Pinus ponderosa: A defense mechanism against microbial invasion, Journal Chem. Ecol., Vol. 18. pp.
1809-1818.
[65] James, D. G., and Price, T. S., (2004), Field-Testing of Methyl Salicylate for Recruitment and Retention of Beneficial Insects in Grapes and Hops, Journal of Chemical Ecology, Vol. 30. No. 8. pp. 1613-1628.
[66] Shulaev, V., Silverman, P., and Raskin, I., (1997), Airborne signalling by methyl salicylate in plant pathogen resistance, Nature, Vol. 385, pp. 718-721.
[67] Schiestl, F. P., and Roubik, D. W., (2003), Odor Compound Detection in Male Euglossine Bees, Journal of Chemical Ecology, Vol. 29. No. 1. pp. 253-257.
[68] Engstrom, Widmark, A., K., Brishammar, and Helmersson, S., (1999), Antifungal activity to Phytophthora infestans of sesquiterpenoids from infected potato tubers, Potato Research, Vol. 42, No. 1. pp. 43-50
[69] Cantwell, S. G., Lau, E. P., Watts, D. S., and Fall, R. R., (1978), Biodegration of acyclic isoprenoids by Pseudomonas species, Journal Bacteriol. Vol. 135, No. 2. pp.
324-333.
[70] Aquilar, J. A., Zavala, A. N., Diaz-Perez, C., Cervantes, C., Diaz-Perez, A. L., and Campos-Garcia, J., (2006), The atu and liu clusters are involved in the catabolic pathways for acyclic monoterpenes and leucine in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, App.
Environ. Microbiol. Vol. 72, No. 3. pp. 2070-2079.
[71] Gao, H. Y., Zhu, B. Z., Zhu, H. L., Zhang, Y. L., Xie, Y. H., and Luo, Y. B., (2007), Effect of suppression of ethylene biosynthesis on flavor products in tomato fruits, Russian Journal of Plant Physiology, Vol. 54, No. 1. pp. 80-88.
[72] Lowe, R. F., Russell, M. F., Southwell, I. A., and Day, J., (2005), Astartea, a new Source of (+)-(1S,5R)-Myrtenal, Journal of Essential Oil Research, Vol. 17. No. 6. pp.
683-685.
[73] Savithiry, N., Gage, D., Fu, W., and Oriel, P., (1998), Degradation of pinene by Bacillus pallidus BR425, Biodegradation, Vol. 9. No. 5., 1998, pp. 337-341.
[74] Dautel, H., Kahl, O., Siems, K., Oppenrieder, M., Muller-Kuhrt, L., Hilker, M., (1991), A novel test system for detection of tick repellents, Entomol. Exp. Appl, Vol. 91. pp.
431-441.
[75] Senanayake, U. M., Wijesekera, R. O. B., (1989), The Volatiles of the Cinnamonum species, Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Essential Oils, Fragrances and Flavors, Vol. 4. pp. 103-111.
[76] Clark, G. S., (1991), Cinnamic Aldehyde, Perfumer & Flavorist, Vol. 16. July/August, P. 26.
[77] Kuwahara, Y., Suzuki, H., Matsumoto, K., and Wada, Y., (1983), Pheromone study on acarid mites, XI., Function of mite body as a general geometrical isomerization and reduction of citral (the alarm pheromone) Carpoglyphus lactis, Allp. Entomol. Zool., Vol. 18. pp. 105-108.
[78] Bove, C., and Conn, E. E., (1961), Metabolism of Aromatic Compounds in Higher Plants: II. Purification and Properties of the Oxynitrilase of Sorghum vulare,The Journal of Biological Chemistry, Vol. 236, No. 1. pp. 207-210.
[79] Boatright, J., Negre, F., Chen, X., Kish, C. M., Wood, B., Peel, G., Orlova, I., Gang, D., Rhodes, D., and Dudareva, N., (2004), Understanding in Vivo Benzenoid Metabolism in Petunia Petal Tissue, Plant Physiol., Vol. 135, No. 4. pp. 1993-2011.
[80] Zenk, M. H., (1967), Pathways of salicyl alcohol and salicin formation in Salix purpurea L., Phytochemistry, Vol. 6. 1967, pp. 245-252.
[81] French, C. J., Vance, C. P., and Towers, G. H. N., (1976), Conversion of p-coumaric acid to p-hydroxybenzoic acid by cell free extracts of potato tubers and Polyporus hispidus, Phytochemistry, Vol. 15. pp. 564-566.
[82] Gross, G. G., (1985), Biosynthesis and metabolism of phenolic acids and monolignols, in Higuchi, T., (Ed.), Biosynthesis and Biodegradation of Wood Components, Academic Press, Orlando, pp. 229-271.
[83] Manabe, S., and Nishino, C., (1983), Sex pheromonal activity of (+)-bornyl acetate and related compounds to the American cockroach, Journal of Chemical Ecology, Vol. 9.
No. 3. pp. 433-448.
[84] Horiuchi, J., I., Muroi, A., Takabayashi, J., Nishioka, T., (2007), Exposing Arabidopsis seedlings to bornyl and borneol acetate affects root growth: Specicity due to the chemical and optical structures of the compounds, Journal of Plant Interaction, Vol. 2.
No. 2. pp. 101-104.
[85] Peana, A. T., D‘Aquila, P. S., Panin, F., Serra, G., Pippia, P., and Moretti, M. D., (2002), Anti-inflammatory activity of linalool and linalyl acetate of essential oils, Phytomedicine, Vol. 9. No. 8. pp. 721-726.
[86] Karp, F., and Croteau, R., (1988), Role of hydroxylases in monoterpene biosynthesis, Schreier, P., (Ed.), Biosynthesis ‟87, W. de Gruyter, Berlin, New York, pp. 173-198.
[87] Vlatka, V., Sneana, T., Pedia, J., Sokkovi, M., Slobodan, M., and Vele, T., (2004), Antifungal activity of davanone-type sesquiterpenes from Artemisia lobelia Var.
conescens, J. Serb. Chem. Soc. Vol. 69. No. 11. pp. 969-972.
[88] Torssell, K. B. C., (1983), Natural Product Chemistry, New York, John Wiley.
[89] Birkett, M. A., Campbell, C. A. M., Chamberlain, K., Guerrieri, E., Hick, A. J., Martin, J. L., Matthes, M., Napier, J. A., Petterson, J., Pickett, J. A., Poppy, G. M., Pow, E. M., Pye, B. J., Smart, L. E., Wadhams, G. H., Wadhams, L. J., and Woodcock, C. M., (2000), New roles for cis-jasmone as an insect semiochemical and plant defense, Plant Biology, Vol. 97, No. 16. pp. 9329-9334.
[90] Lambers, H., (1993), Rising CO2, secondary plant metabolism, plant-herbivore interactions and litter decomposition, Plant Ecology, Vol. 104-105, No. 1. pp. 263- 271.
[91] Abenavoli, M. R., Sorgona, A., Albano, S., and Cacco, G., (2004), Coumarin Differentially Affects the Morphology of Different Root Types of Maize Seedlings, Journal of Chemical Ecology, Vol. 30. No. 9. pp. 1871-1883.
[92] Repcak, M., Imrich, J., and Franekova, M., (2001), Umbelliferone, a stress metabolite of chamomilla recutita (L.) Rauschert, Journal of Plant Physiology, Vol. 158, No. 8.
pp. 1085-1087.
[93] Regnault-Roger, C., Huignard, J., Dugravot, S., Philogene, B. J. R., Vincent, C., Ketoh, K. G., Thibout, E., and Glitho, A. I., (2005), Use of secondary plant products to protect the seeds of a legume, cowpea. Effects on insect pests and their parasitoids, In:
Regnault-Roger, C., Philogene, B. J. R., and Vincent, C., (Eds.), Biopesticides of Plant Origin, Lavoisier, Cedex.
[94] Bones, A. M., and Rossiter, J. T., (1996), The myrosinase-glucosinolate system: its organisation and biochemistry, Physiologia Plantarum, Vol. 97. pp. 194-208.
[95] Takatoshi, T., and Dubourdieu, D., (1998), Identification of 4-mercapto-4- methylpentan-2-one from the box tree (Buxus sempervirens L) and broom (Sarothamnus scoparius (L) Koch), Flavour and Fragrance Journal. Vol. 12., No. 6.
pp. 373-376.
[96] Adisakwattana, S., Sookkongwaree, K., Roengsumran, S., Petsom, A., Ngamrojnavanich, N., Chavasin, W., Deesamer, S., and Yibchok-anun, S., (2004), Structure-activity relationships of trans-cinnamic acid derivatives on a-glucosidase inhibition, Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters, Vol. 14., No. 11. pp. 2893- 2896.
[97] Langenau, E. E., (1972), The examination and analysis of essential oils, synthetics, and isolates, in Guenther, E., The Essential Oils, Vol. 1., Van Nostrand (reprinted by Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co.), Malabar, Florida, Chapter 4.
[98] Secondini, O., (1990), Handbook of Perfumes and Flavors, New York, Chemical Publishing Co., Inc. P. 19.
[99] Lachowicz, K., Jones, G., Briggs, D., Bienvenu, F., Palmer, M., Ting, S. and Hunter, M., (1996), Characteristics of Essential Oil from Basil (Ocimum Basilicum L.) Grown in Australia, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 44, pp. 877-881.
[99] Lachowicz, K., Jones, G., Briggs, D., Bienvenu, F., Palmer, M., Ting, S. and Hunter, M., (1996), Characteristics of Essential Oil from Basil (Ocimum Basilicum L.) Grown in Australia, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, Vol. 44, pp. 877-881.