Tipología de recursos de acogimiento residencial

The founding relationship between Christianity and schooling in Norway arose from the cultural, ontological, political, and educational implications of the establishment of Christianity. Over the 10th and 11th centuries, the Catholic Church arose to become the “most powerful social authority in the pre-reformation Nordic region” (Kent, 2000, p. 16). The rise of the Catholic Church meant the introduction of Christian theology and an increasing conformity of thought to Christianity through education. The Church had a distinct educational purpose that led to a close relationship between religion and schooling.

Within the Middle Ages religion was synonymous with culture, as such within Norway “religion”

as a word did not exist - the closest one finds to it is “custom” (Myhre, 1998). This indicates that what was religious could not be separated from what was cultural (Myhre, 1998), and as such the religious education of the Church was a cultural education (Danielson et al., 1995). The arrival of Christianity in Norway was referred to as “sedskifte” – a change in customs (Myhre, 1998, p. 12,

own translation). It is noteworthy that Norway’s shift to Christianity was a “conversion as a

collective” (Bagge, 2005, p. 112). The Christian Church “penetrated deeply into everyday life”,

with its values, beliefs and practices becoming the “common mentalities” of Norwegian society (Danielson, Dyrvik, Grønlie, Helle & Hovland, 1995, p. 87). Consequently, Christianity evolved to become “undoubtedly the strongest social cement in the more cohesive Norwegian society that took shape in the high middle ages” (Danielson et al., 1995, p. 87).

As religion was inseparable from culture, it also was inseparable from the practice of politics (Bagge, 2005). Throughout the Middle Ages, the church and the king vied for power in Norway where “at times the Church was above the State, [and] at others the King held the greatest power”

(Church of Norway, 1990, p. 25). Generally, however, the Medieval Monarch was the “military

leader” and responsible for upholding the law “in the widest possible sense”, while the church was

expected “to implement Christianity as the sole prescribed religion and to [administer] its rules” (Danielson et al., 1995, pp. 81-82). As such, education was the responsibility of the church.

The implementation of Christianity in Norway required a substantial re-education of the populace due to the introduction of the soul, Christian morality, Christian rules, and a religion based on literacy (Høigård, Ruge & Hansen, 1971). Education was the means to introduce Christian doctrine and to implement and ensure the change of customs (Danielson et al., 1995). Education was

centralised by the overarching authority of the Church that was responsible for its teaching and

content, subsequently “virtually all formal education in medieval Norway took place in

ecclesiastical institutions” (Danielson et al., 1995, p. 83). For the vast majority, this schooling was indirect with the Church compelling parents and godparents to take responsibility for the provision of their children’s religious education (Myhre, 1998). This religious education consisted of “uniform religious doctrine” (Danielson et al., 1995, p. 29) containing “the Creeds, the Lord’s Prayer and the Hail Mary” (Danielson et al., 1995, p. 87). Additional religious teachings could also be required, including important events in the life of Jesus, the Ten Commandments, and understanding of the ceremonies and rituals of the church (Myhre, 1998).

Religious rituals were a strong influence in structuring both the content and the purpose of

education in Catholic Norway. Through a child’s baptism, the church imposed on the parents and

godparents the obligation to provide “a specific educational program” for the Christian upbringing of the child (Høigård et al., 1971, p. 12, own translation). This education was monitored through the religious ritual of confession where parents and godparents were questioned about whether they were fulfilling their educational obligations (Høigård et al., 1971). The culminating educational ritual was confirmation at 12 years of age that symbolised the “affirmation of baptism” (Høigård et al., 1971, p. 13, own translation).

5.1.2 Lutheran Norway: Theological principles for religious authority and provision over schooling

Norway’s relationship between religion, culture, nation, and school changed significantly with the

advent of the Reformation. The Reformation bought the political, social, and educational vision of Martin Luther to Norway that altered the relationship between religion and schooling. In 1537, the

Danish King Christian III inspired by Martin Luther and upon “political as well as personal

grounds”, established the “Evangelical Lutheran faith as the official faith of Norway and Denmark”, thereby uniting Norway and Denmark into one kingdom (Church of Norway, 1990, p. 18). Governance shifted from the “Pope and his Bishops” to the “King and his lay councillors” (Lausten, 1995, p. 34). The Catholic Church was replaced by the Lutheran State Church and Lutheranism became “nationalised” (Sørensen & Stråth, 1997, p. 10). Christianity grew to be closely connected with the formation of the nation state (Bagge, 2005). Under the legitimation of Lutheranism,

Norway became a “Christian State”, the king possessed theocratic legitimacy through the belief that political authority derived from God (Lausten, 1995, pp. 34-35).

Within reformed Norway there was no separation between the laws of the state and the Church (Stenius, 1997). The clergy “represented both God and king” (Thorkildsen, 1997, p. 139) and it was

“from the pulpit” that the local clergyman “preached the word of God and proclaimed royal

decrees” (Thorkildsen, 1997, p. 150). The clergy were both “officers of the Crown and school

governors, supplying the Protestant King, the absolute Head of State, with loyal, knowledgeable subjects of moral conduct” (Haakedal, 2001, p. 89). By his coronation, the King was vested with educational and religious responsibilities for the “introduction and preservation of true Christian worship” and was explicitly obliged to “help his subjects to salvation” (Lausten, 1995, p. 35). Subsequently, the Church Ordinance included education, and effectively became “educational law” (Lausten, 1995, p. 37).

The Norwegian Kirkeordinansen (Church Ordinance) of 1537 and 1539 was consistent with Luther’s educational vision and established children’s lessons based upon Luther’s Little Catechism (Høigård et al., 1971). The Structure of the Catechism had three components: Christian and salvation history, Christian piety and practice, and ethics (Jensen, 2006). The Parish Clerk was required to teach these children’s lessons before or after Church in what amounted to the “first attempt to organise Christian education for all children” (Høigård et al., 1971, p. 23). Within this education philosophy was an early conception of “equality of educational opportunity”, where it was argued, “all God’s children possessed the capacity to be saved and therefore had an equal right

to salvation” (Hansen, 2006, p. 77). This was reasserted by the Norwegian Church Ordinance of

1607 that stipulated, “all children should have catechism education from the parish clerk once a

week” (Haraldsø, 1989, p. 11, own translation). In addition, the 1687 law stipulated that priests,

parish clerks, and parents were all responsible for a child’s education (Haraldsø, 1989). These laws formed a strong connection between religion, culture, and education. Morality was inseparable from religion, religion was inseparable from culture, and schooling in religion was necessary for the social, culture, and political needs of the King and Church. Consequently, in the years following the Reformation, schooling was a significant means “to secure religious uniformity” (Österlin, 1995, p. 111).

Pedagogical thinking in 16th and 17th century Norway was dominated by a “religious point of view” where a strong Christian ontology underpinned schooling (Høigård et al., 1971, p. 40). Religious

knowledge dominated the curriculum through the Lutheran requirement that all subjects be

educated through “house tables, catechization, house examinations … and Church schools”

(Thorkildsen, 1997, p. 139). The Catechism was constructed to create religious, and thus cultural, homogeneity and can be viewed as being an important educational tool that would ensure conformity in both “cognitive and affective acquirement” (Jensen, 2006, p. 103, own translation). Religious schooling in this period can be regarded as being a “crucial step in the construction of society” (Jensen, 2006, p. 108, own translation).