Previous research has shown a strong link between teacher efficacy and the ability of educators to change their teaching practices to suit students (Ross, Hogaboam-Gray, & Hannay, 2001). Teaching self-efficacy has also been shown to be linked to student achievement (Ross, et al., 2001). High self efficacy typically means that an educator will try harder to stimulate students
learning and autonomy with the focus on students needs and try to modify students’ ability perceptions. Educators that have higher levels of teaching self-efficacy will be more likely to seek out new teaching strategies that they believe will help student learning (Perry,
VandeKamp, Mercer, & Nordby, 2002). This exploration may also include examining new technologies as a way to enhance the learning of students (Ross, et al., 2001).
Teaching efficacy has been defined as educators’ belief that they can influence student
performance (outcome) (Henson, 2001). A closely related concept is teaching self-efficacy. This is defined as the belief an educator holds regarding their ability to perform a variety of teaching tasks (Dellinger, Bobbett, Olivier, & Ellett, 2008). The difference between the two concepts is that teaching efficacy draws more on the theory of locus of control and teaching self-efficacy on the theory of self-efficacy. Both of these forms of self-efficacy have been found to influence the integration of technology into their teaching by educators (Baek, Jung, & Kim, 2008), however teaching self-efficacy is a closer in definition to other constructs of self-efficacy considered in this study.
The following section explores the factors that will impact the teaching self-efficacy to integrate ICT into teaching by the educators and how it has been measured in the literature. This is followed by an examination of the role teaching self-efficacy may play in the adoption of mobile learning.
2.4.2.1 Effects of teaching self-efficacy
Previous research has shown that teaching self-efficacy has a strong influence on the integration of ICT into their classroom and their teaching philosophy (Hasan, 2003; Potosky, 2002; Sang, Valcke, Braak, & Tondeur, 2010). However, teaching self-efficacy refers to a broad range of learning activities, of which technology based activities are one. Studies have also found that educators with higher levels of ICT self-efficacy are more likely to use ICT, be more experienced using ICT and have less anxiety (Sang, et al., 2010). Higher levels of ICT self-efficacy, however do not necessarily mean that educators will feel comfortable integrating ICT into their teaching (Baek, et al., 2008; Sang, et al., 2010). ICT self-efficacy and teaching self-efficacy for integrating ICT in teaching are related to the notion of a teacher having self-efficacy in the context of integrating ICT into their teaching practices, but neither adequately captures the construct. There is no agreed term for this construct in the literature, although it has been used in some studies. For the purpose of this study the term ‘ICT-teaching self-efficacy’ will be used to refer to specific self-efficacy about integrating ICT into teaching.
2.4.2.2 Factors that impact ICT-teaching self-efficacy
Despite the benefits of using ICT in education some educators still resist the inclusion of technology in their teaching (Hu, et al., 2003; Mahdizadeh, Biemans, & Mulder, 2008; Sang, et al., 2010). The reasons for resistance to ICT inclusion is influenced by a range of factors,
including accessibility of hardware and relevant software, the nature of the curriculum, personal capabilities and constraints such as time (Albion, 1999; Hammond, et al., 2011; Sang, et al., 2010). However research has shown that the self-efficacy beliefs of educators have the biggest impact on their resistance to the inclusion of ICT into their teaching (Albion, 1999).
There is a substantial body of research identifying factors that influence the self-efficacy of educators to integrate ICT. Many of the factors that influenced ICT self-efficacy will also influence ICT-teaching self-efficacy, but it is important to remember that they are distinct concepts and higher levels of ICT self-efficacy will not necessarily result in higher levels of integration of technology in their teaching. Oliver (1993) described this distinction where new teachers who have had some form of formal training in the use of computers as a personal tool and exhibited higher levels of ICT self-efficacy did not show any difference in their level of technology integration compared to their peers who had not had the training. It is therefore important to consider educators self-efficacy in terms of their teaching rather than just in general. Therefore ICT-teaching self-efficacy has been shown to be influenced by the level of anxiety educators feel when having to use ICT in the classroom, their level of enjoyment they have when using ICT in teaching, the level of control they feel they have when using ICT in their teaching and the level of past experience they have had using ICT in the classroom (Hammond, et al., 2011; Sang, et al., 2010). Other factors have also been shown to specifically influence ICT- teaching self-efficacy these include; the specific beliefs of an educator about whether they are able to use computers as an instructional tool (Hammond, et al., 2011; Mueller, et al., 2008) and teaching philosophy (Albion, 2001; Vannatta & Fordham, 2004), past positive experiences with computers (Albion, 2001; Mueller, et al., 2008; Sang, et al., 2010), past training or workshops attended relating to ICT use in teaching (Vannatta & Banister, 2009; Vannatta & Fordham, 2004) and the level of assistance they have from others (Mueller, et al., 2008).
2.4.2.3 The measurement of ICT-teaching self-efficacy.
An early attempt to measure the ICT-teaching self-efficacy was the Microcomputer Utilization in Teaching Efficacy Beliefs Instrument (MUTEBI). This measure was developed by Enochs, Riggs and Ellis (1993) and it divided self-efficacy into two subscales; Personal Self-efficacy and
Outcome Expectancy. Personal Self Efficacy was defined as “teachers’ beliefs in their own ability to utilize the microcomputer for effective instruction.”(p. 2). Outcome Expectancy on the other hand related to a teachers’ self-reported belief regarding their responsibility for students’ ability or inability to use computer technology in the classroom. This measure showed good validity
and reliability however little subsequent research has been undertaken to substantiate these constructs.
A number of later studies have also developed measures of ICT-teaching self-efficacy, however, these too have not been widely adopted. The first by Wang, Ertmer and Newby (2004) was a measure called Computer Technology Integration Survey (CTIS) that included 21 positively worded statements relating to perceived confidence in successfully integrating technology into teaching practices. Mueller, et al. (2008) also developed a measure with 16 statements relating to their attitudes towards ICT use in education and their ability to use ICT in teaching. These two studies are among the very small body of research that had attempted to identify and develop specific measures that could be used to measure teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs about technology integration.
2.4.2.4 ICT- teaching self-efficacy in the adoption of mobile learning
While there has been an extensive body of literature on ICT-teaching self-efficacy in terms of general use of ICT in the classroom, no reference could be found on how this could impact adoption within the context of mobile learning. However, it is likely that ICT-teaching self- efficacy will play as significant a role in mobile learning adoption as it does in general technology adoption.2.5.3.5 Conclusion.
ICT teaching self-efficacy plays an important role in the use of technology in education, however a substantial gap exists in the literature on the influence of ICT-teaching self-efficacy of the adoption of mobile learning.
Motivation is strongly linked with a user’s self-efficacy (Yi & Hwang, 2003). According to Bandura (1986, 1993) heightened self-efficacy and a positive outcome expectation has a positive effect on intrinsic motivation and leads to further learning. Self-efficacy enables a student to develop their skills, resulting in the feeling of being successful and confident about learning (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2008). In particular a student with higher levels of ICT self-efficacy will often feel more motivated to learn new technologies and explore new ways in which they use these technologies in their own learning (Fardal & Tollefsen, 2004). A user who is a highly motivated learner will be more willing to explore and spend time learning new technology (Yi & Davis, 2003). The next section examines how motivational orientation influences mobile learning adoption.