Tipos de estudio

This was a common architectural form in the western part of the state of

Maharashtra, particularly in the early

centuries of the common era. The earli- est form was the chaitya or rock-cut cave temple, which is specifically associ- ated with Buddhist architectural sites. A chaitya typically had a large chamber sculpted into the side of a hill, usually

with a Buddha image at the far end and a window above the entrance to admit more light. These caves were excavated and sculpted from the top down so that no scaffolding was necessary. The sides and central pillars were carved to mimic wooden construction. Early Hindu

architecture adapted the chaitya form

but eventually moved beyond it to con- struct free-standing temples. The most impressive Hindu rock-cut temples are the caves at Ellora, particularly the

Kailasanatha temple (late 8th c.), dedi-

cated to the god Shiva in his form as the Lord of Mount Kailas. The Kailasanatha temple was sculpted out of solid rock but carved to look as if it were built of masonry. This temple marked the height of the artificial cave as an archi- tectural type, although the temples at

Elephanta were done later. After this

period, the emphasis tended to be on free-standing temples.

Cekkilar

(12th c. C.E.) Author of the Periya

Puranam, a hagiographical account of

the sixty-three Nayanars. The Nayanars Caves, Artificial

were a group of sixty-three Shaiva poet- saints who lived in southern India between the seventh and ninth cen- turies. Along with their Vaishnava coun- terparts, the Alvars, the Nayanars spearheaded the revitalization of Hindu religion in opposition to the Buddhists and the Jains. Both the Nayanars and the Alvars stressed passionate devotion (bhakti) to a personal god—Shiva for the Nayanars, Vishnu for the Alvars— and conveyed this devotion through hymns sung in the Tamil language. According to tradition, Cekkilar was a minister at the court of the Chola

dynasty’s king Kullottunga II

(r. 1130–1150 C.E.). Cekkilar was dis-

tressed by the king’s admiration for a Jain epic poem and composed his own text to distract the king. His text portrays the Nayanars as models of devotion to Shiva, although they are sometimes extreme in their actions. Yet in every case, the love between devotee (bhakta) and deity manifests itself in the circum- stances of everyday life, leading the saints to final liberation.

Celibacy

In traditional Indian culture, celibacy was widely seen not only as a sign of sanctity but also as a source of power. On one hand, since sexual desire is often the symbol for all types of desire, renun- ciation of sexual activity is thus a sign for the renunciation of the world in general. On a more literal level, retention of

semen through celibacy is believed to

prevent the loss of a man’s vital energy. In traditional Indian physiology, semen is believed to be distilled from blood and is therefore the concentrated essence of a man’s vitality. Although semen can and must be expended for procreation, all other losses should be carefully weighed. Thus there are strong taboos on masturbation. This vital energy, stored and conserved through celibacy, can then be used for spiritual advance- ment. The paradigm for the celibate

ascetic is the god Shiva, one of whose

symbols is the linga, a pillar-shaped

image with clear phallic associations. Shiva is the model husband and the consummate ascetic. The linga repre- sents his stored celibate energy, as the product of his tapas (ascetic practices). In the same way, celibacy is a way for human men to conserve their vital ener- gies, whether one is a lifetime celibate (naisthika), a student (brahmacharin), or—as in many cases—a married man who has already had children.

Chaitanya

(1486–1533 C.E.) Bengali saint, devotee (bhakta) of the god Krishna, and the founder of the Gaudiya Vaishnava reli- gious community. Chaitanya was such a pivotal figure that there are many tradi- tional sources for his life, although their hagiographic character makes them his- torically unreliable. According to one of these traditions, Chaitanya embodied Krishna himself. Krishna became Chaitanya to experience the longing of

Radha, his beloved consort whom

Chaitanya imagined himself to be. Thus, for his followers Chaitanya was con- ceived as Krishna and Radha in the same body.

Chaitanya was born in the town of

Navadvip in the state of West Bengal

and given the name Vishvambar. Traditional sources portray the young man as a gifted teacher but with no inclination toward Krishna. In 1508 he went to Gaya, a sacred site (tirtha) asso- ciated with rites for the dead, to perform rites for his dead father. In Gaya, Vishvambar met his teacher, Ishvara

Puri, and something profound hap-

pened there, for he returned to Navadvip a passionate devotee of Krishna. On his return, Vishvambar began to hold the public kirtan (devo- tional chanting) that has become the hallmark of the Gaudiya Vaishnava school. Devotees sang and danced in the streets and wept uncontrollably. Through this ecstatic emotional wor-

ship, they sought to regain the devotional

atmosphere associated with the gopis, Krishna’s cowherd women, and thus Chaitanya

share in the gopis’ intimate relationship with Krishna.

In 1510 Vishvambar formally became an ascetic, taking the name Krishna Chaitanya, and for the rest of his life propagated the worship of Krishna. For much of that time, he resided in the sacred city of Puri. This was reportedly in deference to his mother, since she felt that Krishna’s childhood home,

Brindavan, was too far away. Despite his

mother’s wishes, Chaitanya did take sev- eral lengthy trips: a two-year tour of the holy places in southern India between 1510 and 1512, and in 1514, a trip to Brindavan, in which Chaitanya had fre- quent mystical experiences. After his return to Puri, he met the brothers Rupa and Sanatana Goswami. Chaitanya directed them to settle in Brindavan and re-establish the holy sites associated with Krishna’s life. Driven by Chaitanya’s charisma and ecstatic devotion, Rupa, Sanatana, and their nephew Jiva

Goswami became pivotal figures in the

development of the Gaudiya Vaishnava school. While Chaitanya was absorbed in his devotion to Krishna until his death, Rupa, Santana, and Jiva Goswami gave this devotion a systematic organi- zation. For further information see Sushil Kumar De, Early History of the

Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, 1961; and Janardana

Chakravarti, Bengal Vaishnavism and Sri

Chaitanya, 1975.