The Xiao Qin Effect suggests that Chinese parents prefer to make decisions to maximise their children’s utility function, especially when each family has only one child (Bodycott, 2009). It can be treated as a type of institution in Asia, especially exists in China. Based on the research result (Hodgson, 2006), institutions are structures concerned with the social realm, which is a system that made up of prevalent social rules and regulations that structure and frame social life and interactions. Institutions work in
62 social life because their rules include shared habits, and preference of thoughts and behaviour (Kilpinen, 2000). Moreover, institutions structure and regulate human behaviour, which can be divided into two categories, agent-sensitive institutions and agent-insensitive institutions (Hodgson, 2006). As Xiao Qin Effect does not change significantly when the preference and/or dispositions of the agents change, it is an agent- insensitive institution that creates the basement and rules of social life.
Xiao Qin effect explains the relationship between Chinese children and their parents which may influence the decision-making process and is considered in this research as it is likely to affect the decision to study (Chow and Chu, 2007). This relationship defines and regulates how children should relate to and respect their parents and other older family members (Chow and Chu, 2007). It is argued that through academic achievement Chinese children fulfil the obligation of Xiao Qin (Chow and Chu, 2007) which can also be treated as a form of repayment to their parents.
This may be of particular relevance in the Chinese case due to the One Child Policy, which has been changed recently (National Health and Family Planning Commission of the PRC, 2015), and the lack of social protection structures, such as pensions. In the context of foreign study, where tuition fees are more than ten times the Chinese level, Chinese parents spend a large proportion of their savings, perhaps also borrowing, to fund their child’s study in a foreign country. Using income smoothing theory (Copeland, 1968), it may be anticipated that, since the investment from Chinese parents in their child is mostly in the middle stage of their life, they expect a higher return in later stages of life.
The Xiao Qin Effect is important however than the decision to invest in foreign education as there is a complex interaction between parents and their child’s decision-making process and academic motivation.
63 Xiao Qin as a type of authoritarian moralism; children regard their parents’ needs and wants as part of their achievement and become the kind of person that their parents expect them to be (Boey, 1976; Ho, 1987; Yau-Fai Ho, 1994). Under Xiao Qin, children should study hard not only for personal academic achievement, but also to repay their parents and bring honour to the family, in other words, because of Xiao Qin (Filial Piety) (Chow and Chu, 2007). Filial Piety can be regarded as motivation for East Asian children’s academic achievement (Salili, 1994, 1995; Abada et al., 2009).
References to Xiao Qin to explain the relationship between parents and children in Chinese families, Chinese children will provide long-term respect and care to parents to repay their parents’ sacrifices to ensure their children can receive the best education (Bodycott, 2009). For instance, a child may display an unquestioning attitude towards his or her parents’ plans for future study and career, even if that plan does not satisfy the child’s own wants (Bodycott, 2009).
Additionally, there is one study that links Xiao Qin with hierarchic cultural structure and “face” (Mianzi) (Hsu and Wang, 2011). They cite another research (Lin, 2004), who points out that the hierarchical structure of society, harmonious family and interpersonal relationships are key factors of Chinese culture. It explains why filial piety is a prevailing belief and is supported by Chinese culture and society. Also, some research suggests that preserving parents’ “face” (Mianzi) means preserving the honour and respect of their parents and their family, as would be expected of them according to filial piety (Kwan, 2000; Kuo et al., 2011). To the students, they should behave well and study hard to achieve a good education. It is a result predicted from filial piety, as they learn from teachers and relatives in their family that poor examination results or education achievement will make their parents lose face, which would violate the theory of filial piety (Yeh and Bedford, 2004).
The Dual Filial Piety Model (Yeh, 1997; Yeh, 2003; Yeh and Bedford, 2003) divides filial piety into two independent categories, reciprocal filial piety and authoritarian filial
64 piety. The former is concerned with keeping a harmonious relationship in the family with affection and gratitude, and the latter emphasises obedience and indebtedness to parents (Yeh and Bedford, 2003; Hsu and Wang, 2011). Both types of filial piety will be useful to explain the influence of this belief on students’ education choices, including whether they will study abroad.
Xiao Qin is very common in Chinese culture and traditions, also in Confucian values. Chinese society and environment emphasise the duties that children have to parents (Yeh and Bedford, 2004). In addition, nearly all parts of Chinese society emphasise the value and importance of filial piety: media, peers, family relatives, books and newspapers, social conferences, and teachers. All of these factors contribute to form the definition and concept of Xiao Qin in a child’s mind (Yeh and Bedford, 2004).
Filial piety is the basic principle which regulates children’s behaviours and presents in their parents, and is very common in Chinese culture (Chow, 2006). This relationship exists unacknowledged and invisible, but because of it, both parents and children are obliged to provide care and support to each other. In Taiwan it also means children are obliged to support their parents and relatives (Chow, 2006). The research describes three levels of filial piety in practice, based on Confucian theory (Chow, 2006). Satisfying parents’ physical needs, wants and comforts; following their wishes; and bringing parents honour and respect in the community (Chow, 2006). These three levels of filial piety are the three elements which make up basic filial piety theory. Also these three levels demonstrate how and why Chinese students’ choice of study abroad can be influenced.
Filial piety does not exist only in China. It also exists in other Asian countries. In East Asia, filial piety is a prevailing belief of culture in society which affects people’s behaviours through unspoken rules and social expectations with respect to their loyalty and obligations to their parents, even the whole family (Ikels, 2004). It includes children’s duty to respect, obey and please their parents. Research also suggested that filial piety forms a variety of roles in the family and society, based on age, gender and
65 generation, with their own responsibilities. Moreover, these roles and their responsibilities are supported by society and are influenced by the person’s public status (Ikels, 2004).
In Lawley (1997)’s research of Thai and Malaysian students in Australia, research results showed that family opinion has an important impact on their choice of course and destination country. To the international students who are from China and India, Mazzarol and Soutar (2002)’s research results also showed that parents’ recommendations ha important impact on the foreign study decision.
Pimpa (2003;2004)’s research reviewed Thai students foreign study decision-making process. During the process, parents would transfer their expectations of their children’s education goal. Surveyed Thai students said their parents told them foreign education is better since they were children. They also reported their parents’ and siblings’ expectations had great influence not only on their foreign study decision, but also on the choice of destination and course/subject. Their foreign study was to satisfy expectations, such as obtaining a foreign qualification, become fluent in a foreign language and get a better life. The research results show that their parents’ persuasion had a significant impact on Thai students’ choices about their decision to study abroad.
Kusumawati (2013)’s research discussed the process of Indonesian students’ decision of domestic universities. Parents’ influence was one of the five most important factors influence on their decision. Surveyed respondents’ parents required the students to choose the university which was close to their hometown to help or monitor them conveniently. Some of the students were required to go to the local university as they were the only child or the first child of the family. Surveyed students choose the university in hometown as they perceived their parents would not support them if they chose a university outside of where they live. Research also showed that parents would use their past experience, stories and expectations to motivate surveyed Indonesian students to work hard to obtain a better life. The research also stated that many surveyed
66 students had pressure to consider parents’ expectation on their decision of university. Most of them mentioned that parents had expectations for them to study in a particular university. The majority of students decided to satisfy their parents’ wishes and expectations. In this case, the Xiao Qin Effect can be clearly seen. Children having an unquestioning attitude towards parents’ decisions and following their parents’ wishes are the signs of Xiao Qin Effect.
Filial piety is the cornerstone of the parent-child relationship and also the base of family relationships, though recently younger generations have been influenced by Western culture (Compton, 2000). Some of the social values and norms, such as the practice of filial piety have been challenged as a result of Western social, economic, and cultural influences, such as individual-centred perspectives and rights from past decades (Hsu and Wang, 2011). It is also seen in immigrants, that parents hold traditional norms of filial piety and children are raised in Western culture (Lieber et al., 2004). The differences in value and opinion of filial piety between immigrants’ parents and children make practicing filial piety a challenge. Yeh and Bedford (2003) argue that in modern Chinese society, Western culture and values have a negative influence on authoritarian filial piety but do not diminish reciprocal filial piety’s influence. The former emphasises on hierarchy, obedience and indebtedness to parents while the latter focuses on keeping a harmonious relationship in the family. Authoritarian filial piety conflicts with Western values of individuality, equal and democratic opinion which may explain why its influence is getting weaker.
This section has shown the Xiao Qin effect (Filial Piety) mainly exists in East Asia. It is seen as an unspoken rule and social expectation that children will respect and be loyal, and fulfil their obligations to their parents, even their family (Ikels, 2004). There are three level of Xiao Qin effect, satisfying parents’ physical needs and wants, following their wishes and bring them honour and respect in the community (Chow, 2006). Under Xiao Qin Effect, students should study hard to bring honour to their parents and family (Chow and Chu, 2007). Children with poor examination results or education achievement will
67 make their parents lose face (bring their parents shame) in the community which would violate the theory of Xiao Qin (Yeh and Bedford, 2004). It can be regarded as motivation for East Asian children’s academic achievement (Salili, 1994, 1995; Abada et al., 2009).
As discussed on Page 53, Section 2.3.3 Ethnic effect on immigrants’ education, South and South East Asian immigrants’ children’ success could be explain by the ethnic community’s emphasis on education. This ethnic effect could be seen as a side effect from Xiao Qin Effect. As East Asia’s society emphasises the value and importance of the Xiao Qin Effect, when immigrants move abroad, they still carry this institution with them and so influence their children’s education achievement.
There are factors, other than the expected financial return, that may influence the decision to study abroad. These are factors for which this study will control. They are considered in Page 100 Section 3.4 Quantitative Survey Methodology and Page 128, Section 3.5 Qualitative Research Methodology.
2.5.
Conclusion
This chapter has discussed the main conceptual and empirical literature informing the theoretical framework of the thesis. The literature review highlighted three categories of factors, push and pull factors, investment and return on education, and parental involvement and Xiao Qin effect (Filial Piety).
The section on push and pull factors revealed the push and pull factors of FDI, migration and international education. Even though the factors influencing these decisions are different, the push and pull factors of the decision on FDI and migration could help to build the frame of push and pull factors and help to understand how they work. There are similarities between the push and pull factors of FDI, migration and international education decision. Some of the factors of FDI and migration, such as foreign exchange rate, geographical location and social ties (network factor) appear to be push and pull
68 factors for international education decision. Moreover, as international students are in a special group of migrants because their future plan is uncertain, i.e. it is unclear whether they will stay in the future and their duration of stay. Some factors that influence migration, such as social ties and job opportunities, also influence the foreign study decision.
The push and pull factors differ mainly on which country is being focussed upon. A factor which is a push factor in the home country and the factor exists in the destination country as a pull factor.
In the section of investment and return on education, previous literature shows that education could influence individual’s earnings in each period of working life (Mincer, 1975). Keeping all the other conditions the same, individuals who want to pursue education which requires one more year of study will do if the individual expects to earn higher future earnings (Rubinstein and Weiss, 2006). This may explain why international students would suffer high financial cost, such as tuition fees and living cost, and non- financial cost, such as time and give up potential job opportunities abroad. They may look for good return from foreign study decision.
This section also discussed the investment and return on immigrants and return immigrants’ education. The length of time that immigrants expect to stay in the destination country determines their investment on education in the destiation courtry. If the immigrants want to return to home country and the plan includes their children, they will invest less on their children’ educaiton compared to the permanent immigrants or the immigrants will stay in the destination country long term (Dustmann, 2008).
Langauge effect and ethnic effect on investment and return on education are also discussed in this section. Language determines whether the immigratns can get a particular job in the destination country. It is also a complementary skill as some careers have specific requirements for language proficiency, such as law and medicine (Dustmann and Glitz, 2011). Immigrants with better langauge skills have higher earnings than the immigrants who do not (Chiswick, 1991; Dustmann, 1994). Ethnic communities
69 have an influence on immigrants’ potential earnings and education decision. Dustmann et
al. (2011) found that immigrants get information about wage and job vacancies through
their ethnic community network. Some of ethnic communities, such as South East Asian ethnic communities, emphasise the importance of education, positively influencing immigrants’ decision on their children’ education and the second generation education achievement (Dustmann and Glitz, 2011).
The last section discussed parental involvement and Xiao Qin Effect (Filial Piety). Parental involvement includes parents’ financial and non-financial support, and expecations. Parents’ value on education has a positive correlation with their children’s academic achievement (Chow and Chu, 2007). Previous literature revealed parental involvement in the education decision, such as negotiation with agents and institutions, convincing their children to study in certain university, providing financial support, and encouraging children to study hard. Compared to parental involvement, Xiao Qin Effect only exists in Asia area. It is a type of authoritarian moralism which explains the relationship between parents and children. The previous literature discussed the two different types of Xiao Qin Effect (Filial Piety), reciprocal filial piety and authoritarian filial piety, and three levels of Xiao Qin Effect (Filial Piety). Literature on parental involvement and Xiao Qin Effect (Filial Piety) help to explore the theoretical factors that could influence international students’ foreign study decision. In the quantitative and qualitative survey design, these two factors will be considered and included.
Even though previous literature on push and pull factors of international education choice, investment and return on education, and parental involvement and Xiao Qin Effect (Filial Piety) have built up a very good framework, gaps in the literature still exist.
In the past, push and pull factors of internatioanl education, previous literature relied on the research of one country’s or one continent’s students, but not students from different backgrounds. This thesis will perform research on international students from Asia, Africa, the Americas, the European Union, and Oceania. The targeted international students are from different schools within University College Cork (UCC) and different stages of education. Their purpose of studying abroad is also different. Some of them
70 study in UCC for a degree and some of them are visiting students. The various cutlures and education backgrounds could help to discover foreign study decision patterns of international students from different backgrounds. Moreover, this research collected both quantitative and qualitative survey and analysed both data at the same time which could explore new factors through comparison and contrast. Previous literature uses only quantitative or qualitative data, or collect and analyse these two types of data at different stages that gives priority to one type of data. This may result in weaker comparisons between quantiative and qualitative results and may miss some factors.
Secondly, previous literature on investment and return on education focuses on investment and actual return on education. This thesis will explore the relationship between investment and expected return on education when the international students made the foreign study decision, they can only expect how much they could earn after graduation. The thesis will reveal whether respondents investing more on educaiton would look for higher level of earnings in the future.
Moreover, previous literature on investment and return on educaiton of immigrants focuses on the immigrants moving to foreign country because of family reunion, career relocation, and forced migration (refugees). However, the literature does not explore from the perspective of international students. International students are a specific group of immigrants as their future plan is uncertain. As the difference between international students and other immigrants, using the literature of investment and return on educaiton of immigrants completely is not suitable for analysing international students’ decision to study aborad. This thesis will fill in the gap to perform the first research that explores influence from investment and expected return on education on international students’ decision to study abroad.
Previous literature on parental involvement and Xiao Qin Effect (Filial Piety) also lacks a comparison and contrast between quantitative and qualitative data and only focuses on one country or one continent. This thesis explores parental involvement and Xiao Qin Effect (Filial Piety)’s influence on foreign study decisions from the perspective of
71 international students with different backgrounds. It would be more clear to see the difference in perceived parental involvement and its influence on foreign study decisions.
The next chapter will discuss the quantitative and qualitative survery method and data collection. The survey questions rationale will also be discussed.
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